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ONE DEPARTMENT OF THE FARM-FACTORY 7 



FARM STOCK 






A Practical Treatise on Horses, Cattle, Sheep 
and Swine, including their breeding, feeding 
care and management in health and disease 



By 
CHARLES WILLIAM BURKETT 

Editor of American Agriculturist 



ILLUSTRATED 



NEW YORK 

ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 

1911 



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Copyright, 1910 

Orange Judd Company 

New York 



CCU2S3044 



PREFACE 

■~] Farm stock have played an important role in 
American farming. An immense quantity of 

j roughage material unavailable as food for man, 
each year by means of live stock is converted into 
appetizing and nutritious food; protection and 
clothing are secured from their hair and wool; 
shoes are made from their hides; labor is done by 
their employment; and assistance in a thousand 
and one directions is rendered — all coming as a 
direct result of the breeding, feeding and raising 
of farm stock on the farms of the country. 

The volume herewith presented abounds in help- 
ful suggestions and valuable information for the 
most successful production of farm stock in all 
the phases of the subject. It is an e very-day hand 
book of live stock and contains the best ideas 
gathered from the various authorities and the ex- 
perience of a score of practical men in all depart- 
ments of live stock production. 

C. W. Burkett. 

New York City, June, 1910. 



Table of Contents 



INTRODUCTION 

Page 

CHAPTER I 
The Breeding of Farm Stock 7 

CHAPTER II 
The Feeding of Animals 13 

CHAPTER III 
Horses 26 

CHAPTER IV 
Breeds of Horses 28 

CHAPTER V 
Horse Breeding ....... 41 

CHAPTER VI 
Feeding the Horse ....... 48 

CHAPTER VII 
The Care and Management of Horses ... 58 

CHAPTER VIII 
The Diseases of the Horse 66 

CHAPTER IX 
The Mule 76 

CHAPTER X 
Cattle 83 

CHAPTER XI 
Breeds of Cattle 86 



Vlll TABLE OF CONTENTS 

CHAPTER XII 
The Business of Dairying 109 

CHAPTER XIII 
The Business of Beef Making 125 

CHAPTER XIV 
The Care and Management of Cattle . . . 144 

CHAPTER XV 
The Diseases of Cattle 154 

CHAPTER XVI 
Sheep 163 

CHAPTER XVII 
Breeds of Sheep 165 

CHAPTER XVIII 
Sheep Feeding 177 

CHAPTER XIX 
The Care and Management of Sheep . . . 181 

CHAPTER XX 
The Diseases of Sheep 195 

CHAPTER XXI 
Swine .' 201 

CHAPTER XXII 
Breeds of Swine 203 

CHAPTER XXIII 
Feeding Hogs 213 

CHAPTER XXIV 

The Care and Management of Swine . . . 220 

CHAPTER XXV 
The Diseases of Swine 237 



INTRODUCTION 
FARM STOCK 

The progress that a nation is making can, with 
reasonable accuracy, be measured by the kind of 
live stock it raises. Poor people and poor stock 
usually go together. The most prosperous nations 
of the earth get a large share of their wealth by 
raising improved stock. This is the story the 
world over. Wherever agriculture is really suc- 
cessful and the people prosperous, the raising of 
live stock is a fixed feature of that agriculture. 
While it is true that many special lines of agri- 
culture are extremely prosperous with no live stock 
connected with them, still, as a general rule, live 
stock are necessary to use up the roughage mate- 
rials of the farm, thus bringing into profit a vast 
amount of food material that otherwise would 
be lost. 

The history of farming tells in no uncertain 
terms that where live stock have not been appre- 
ciated, fertile lands cannot be maintained. Its 
admonition is to get live stock; to get all kinds of 
farm stock; to sell your crops through them. Its 
mark is against any single line of farming, because 
such means inefficiency, soil depletion and worn- 
out land. The cotton farmer needs cattle, sheep 
and hogs to consume his cowpea forage, his clover 
forage, and the corn forage that were produced 
as a part of the crop system to maintain the cot- 
ton lands. The wheat farmer needs live stock for 
a proper utilization of straw and clover and alfalfa 
that are a part of good wheat farming. The corn 



2 FARM STOCK 

farmer needs hogs and cattle to consume the grain 
and stover and the rotation crops, that his lands 
may remain fertile and his farming plant be made 
better. 

Humus and manure must be had. They may 
come from green crops or from city stables, but 
their use must never be ignored, else the time 




GOOD FEED — THEN GOOD CATTLE 

You can stock your farm with good cattle, but if good feed 
is not provided you will not get very far in the business. 

will come suddenly when neither fertilizers nor 
tillage will avail and when the land will be thrown 
back on nature for restoration and the renewal 
of life. When correct farming is practiced, crop 
rotation is renewed, diversified farming follows, 
live stock are restored to the farm and the land 
becomes fertile and the farm productive. 
The old saying that runs: 



INTRODUCTION 3 

"No grass, no cattle; 
No cattle, no manure; 
No manure, no grass," 

applies to every American farm today. The cry 
on the great majority of farms is for more manure 
and for better preserved manure that shall be 
applied to the soil more intelligently and more 
thoughtfully than is now the case. 

Just go into any old section of the country — ■ 
into New England if you please. There you will 
find many deserted homes and abandoned farms. 
Why? Because the fertility was sold and not re- 
placed. It was sent away from the farms in bushel 
baskets, in baled bundles, in cotton sacks — by the 
pound, by the bushel and by the ton. Go into the 
South — into the land blessed in every way beyond 
measure. You find impoverished soils; you see 
worn-out fields, gullied and wrinkled and cast 
aside. The fat of the land was gathered up and 
shipped away in cotton, in tobacco, in corn, and 
none was returned to take its place. The humus 
of the soil was used up and burned by one-horse 
plows and shallow working tools and the land was 
bereft of its powers of high production. 

Go into any of the older parts of the country — 
go even into the West, into the newest settlements. 
You find depleted, soils, farms rendering their 
owners a bare subsistence. Why is this all so 
true? Because the soil robber in every instance 
has been present, the farm stock have been 
shunned, the fertility has been taken away and the 
lands have been reduced to the lowest point of 
production. 

All of the trouble has been due to a disregard 
of the place and importance of live stock. Farm 



4 FARM STOCK 

stock will remake old lands and maintain good 
lands. Let your farm be a factory — a farm fac- 
tory — where most of the crops raised shall be 
consumed as food for live stock, that finished prod- 
ucts may be made and as such be sold rather than 
as raw materials, in which form they were secured. 
These things it means: That there shall be diver- 
sity in crops; that more live stock shall be bred 




DAIRY CATTLE AT PASTURE 

As the country grows older and more thickly populated 
the number of dairy cows will increase, for the reason that 
a larger quantity of human food is secured than through an 
equal expenditure of raw materials fed to any other class of 
farm animals. 

and fed on the factory farm; that the entire plant 
shall be managed as a business enterprise of the 
largest magnitude. 

Farm stock, then, have an essential bearing on 
the profits of the farm. They stand for increased 
fertility of the land. They call for the constant 
rotation of crops, not only better to feed the stock, 
but better to help the land. 



INTRODUCTION 5 

Farm stock consume many kinds of cheap 
feeds that are raised on the farm. If sold on the 
open market, these would seldom bring in enough 
to cover the cost of transportation to market 
Therefore, farm animals are profitable machines 
for using inferior cheap products and converting 
them into wholesome, nutritious, animal food. 
They materially minimize, also, the cost of mar- 
keting from farm to city or other place of con- 
sumption. A ton of corn stover, wheat straw, or 
corn, is marketed far more cheaply in the form 
of meat, butter or cheese than if transported by 
wagon to the place of sale. Not only is the cost 
of transportation by means of live stock reduced 
to a minimum, but a market is thus secured for 
even the bulkiest of foods. 

Farm stock have an important bearing on the man- 
agement of farm labor. They call for a high type 
of labor, give this labor regular employment and 
keep farm help interested in all that is to be done. 

Farm stock have a marked influence in the pro- 
motion of industry in all rural communities. The 
most settled people in farming, the most educated 
class of farmers, the most prosperous people en- 
gaged in agriculture, are those engaged in some 
one or more lines of live stock. . 

Finally, farm stock greatly influence the mental 
capacity, caliber and character of the men dealing 
with them, not only because a balanced sort of 
food supply is provided, but the close, intimate 
touch that farm stock invite, secures the highest 
mark in character, industry and intelligence. It 
is on the farm, in touch with farm stock and in 
contact with farm animals, that are fashioned vig- 
orous bodies, clear brains, steady nerves, self- 
reliance, character and sympathy. 



CHAPTER I. 
The Breeding of Farm Stock 

The average value of farm animals in the United 
States is not high; while individual animals noted 
for their superior work and performance command 
immense prices, the vast majority of farm stock 
is not particularly good. How to raise the yearly 
performance of the dairy cow, the regular effi- 
ciency of a farm horse, a larger quantity of beef 
in the beef cow and quicker maturity and higher 
quality in the hog are all pertinent questions with 
us now, as they have been in the past. These are 
the problems that American farmers will need to 
solve in future years. Of course feeding will do 
much in improving the quantity and quality of the 
animal products, but the underlying principle in 
efficiency, the fundamental factor in animal pro- 
duction, is good stock. Blood pays in animals as 
it shows itself in men. There has been a constant 
improvement from the original low strains to the 
modern individuals. 

MAN HAS DONE MUCH 

During hundreds of years farm animals have 
been adapting themselves to the various environ- 
ments in which they have been placed. By man's 
help in selecting out those best fitted, results con- 
stantly better have been secured. Consequently 
farm animals today are of a much higher grade 
than they were a century ago. Way back ten 
centuries ago or twenty-five centuries ago there 



THE BREEDING OF FARM STOCK J 

was no great demand made upon farm animals. 
The cow had no master. All she was interested 
in was the getting just enough of food for herself 
and to provide enough milk for her offspring. If 
her hair was long and shaggy, it better protected 
her body from cold and inclement weather. If 
her horns were sharp, they gave her better pro- 
tection and more certain defense. She had no 
need of a large udder; that need came only after 
man had found it to be useful, satisfying and 
nourishing. The primitive hog was naturally 
coarse and ferocious and easily angered, because 
his protection lay in those directions. He needed 
a long limb, because he could more easily escape 
when the foe was stronger than himself. The 
longer his snout the better he could root for roots, 
and worms were good to his palate, and wholesome 
medicine. If his hide was tough and thick, he 
could the better stand the cold, the thorns or the 
enemy's tooth; and the stronger his tusk, the bet- 
ter able he was to win the fight. 

After man took a hand in the rearing of farm 
animals these things quickly underwent a change. 
Man brought better food; he gave better shelter; 
he looked after their pains and troubles; and they 
responded by growing more rapidly. Less effort 
was required to care for themselves; so they just 
naturally put on more flesh or produced more milk. 
Our fathers who had charge of this breeding and 
improvement had learned early of some funda- 
mental principles of breeding and improvement 
that they used to good advantage. They made the 
best of them; they studied all the processes in- 
volved and joined their practices with what sug- 
gested better results. 



& FARM STOCK 

THE PRINCIPLES THAT GOVERN 
BREEDING 

Now the fundamental principles that govern 
feeding and improvement are : First, heredity ; and 
second, variation. Upon these two you must build 
your structure; but you must furnish it and 
beautify it by selection. Heredity is the law that 
like produces like. Variation is the law that works 




A REAL RAZOR-BACK 

There is not much profit in this kind of hog. His place 
is in the museum alongside of the cradle, the flail and the 
spinning-wheel. 

to produce new things. Heredity is the law of 
uniformity. Variation is the law of change. 
Heredity is satisfied with what now exists. Va- 
riation goes out to explore — to seek new paths and 
new fields. The animal breeder builds upon the 
present heredity, but he courts variation and urges 
it to seek new findings. If these are to his liking, 



THE BREEDING OF FARM STOCK Q, 

he seizes them as his own, attaches them to the 
old heredity and builds the new structure higher 
and better. The work is now to fix the new acqui- 
sition and to make it a part of the building mate- 
rial. Variation all the while is allowed free range 
that it may gather in new discoveries for further 
improvement and use. We let heredity hold, keep 
and guard the values of the best fitted animals, 
but we call in variation to improve them. 

WHERE SELECTION COMES IN 

But where is selection? If its role is so im- 
portant, why don't we see it on the stage? We 
do, if nothing in the play is struck out. Selection 
is man's part of the drama. It is his work to de- 
cide what new things that variation has found 
shall be held, what new ones shall be cast aside, 
and at what point a new acquisition shall be fixed 
as a part of the old stock. In beginning his breed- 
ing operations, it was the breeder's duty to as- 
certain what classes and individuals already had 
progressed furthest in the line in which he was 
interested. - Every breeder has been seeking some 
special end. By looking over the field he was able, 
if he was on to his job, to get some individuals 
peculiarly adapted already in the direction he was 
going. 

HOW SELECTION IS WORKED 

So if it was milk, the wise breeder sought the 
breed and type that had longest been trained and 
bred and had become most efficient in the produc- 
tion of milk. When beef was wanted, he sought 
out those breeds that had been bred most wisely and 



IO 



FARM STOCK 



trained most carefully to deposit meat upon the 
back. When he was after pork, he chose those 
breeds longest selected to produce a large quantity 
of meat and fat at the least expenditure of effort 
and food. In every case he rejected the little-doer 
and the scrub. Just as he did not expect to do 
good tillage on his soils by means of a wooden 
plow nor to travel fast when an old-time engine 



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GRADE MERINOS ON THE RANGE 



The Grade Merino has for a long time been popular on the 
sheep ranges of the West. 



was used, so he did not expect to profit from live 
stock grown from scrubs. All these are equally 
out of date. 

You are familiar with the highly specialized 
breeding operations with dogs; some have been 
bred and developed and trained as watch dogs, 
others as hunters, others as pointers and setters, 
and others in a score of other directions, peculiarly 
and specially, adapted for some particular work. 



THE BREEDING OF FARM STOCK 1 1 

Now that same force and power applies to hogs 
and cattle. 

GET RID OF SCRUBS 

The thing to do is to rid yourself of the scrubs 
and poor producing individuals, because these bring 
you only meager profits. I know that occasionally 
an exceptional scrub cow pays in a dairy, but some- 
where back in her breeding is improved blood; 
something responsible for the result. 

WHEN LIVE STOCK PAYS 

Live stock pays only where you find well-bred 
animals; this is the fundamental idea of live stock 
management. If your beef business or dairy busi- 
ness does not pay today, you are making a mistake 
by condemning feed stuffs, lands, markets or sec- 
tions before you have carefully considered the ani- 
mal that works for you. Choose first the line, then 
the breed, and to these other things will be added. 

But high-class, special bred animals are expen- 
sive ; and I am not going to suggest that you start 
with pure-bred animals. If you have money, and 
are acquainted with the principles of breeding, it 
will pay you to do this. But if you know little 
about the care and attention required for pure- 
bred, highly trained farm animals, your first need 
will be to know how to care and tend such indi- 
viduals before you become their owner. 

HOW TO START YOUR HERD 

I suggest, therefore, that you select for your 
breeding herd or flock, the better grade of indi- 
viduals that possess fairly good breeding, and such 



12 FARM STOCK 

as possess those qualities as you desire when your 
flock or herd shall be highly improved. You are 
to use, however, for the purpose of improvement, 
the best pure-bred males that can be obtained. For 
the male is half or more. There must be no mon- 
grel or questionable blood in his veins. He must 
be no cross-bred individual. He must come from 
no two breeds, even though both are pure breeds 
with long lines of ancestors back of them. Real 
success comes only from sticking fast to one line 
of blood. Like begets like, you know. To trifle 
with this principle is to end in your destruction. 
You may have the best motives, but you will lose. 
Nature works without sentiment, is heartless, and 
her only reason for doing things is law; and from 
this law she deviates not, nor does she ever stop. 
Like the brook that goes on forever or until the 
waters are no more, so does the fundamental law 
of breeding govern and control both the improve- 
ment and deterioration without hindrance or varia- 
tion. 

NEVER USE A GRADE SIRE 

If you are a young breeder, do not make this 
mistake of choosing a grade sire or an inferior 
pure-bred, because such an animal may cost less 
than a pure-bred one. If you do, instead of breed- 
ing up to improvement, you will breed down to 
inferiority and regret. Use a male of strong pre- 
potency — one that possesses rich quality, high 
character, and then your herd or flock can be 
brought to quick productiveness in a short time. 
But your herd or flock can be maintained at that 
point only by the continued use of males of su- 
perior breeding. Use for a single generation an 
inferior sire and a backward turn will be made. 



CHAPTER II. 

The Feeding of Animals 

It has been since the study of feeding principles 
has come into use and favor that the greatest suc- 
cess has been reached in the feeding of the various 
classes of farm animals. Our fathers thought it 
enough to supply food freely and abundantly; they 
did not know that there were well-defined prin- 
ciples upon which successful feeding rests. In 
fact, it has only been in recent years that any care- 
ful study has been made of the composition of 
plants and animals, and an attempt to correlate one 
with the other. Thanks to our scientists and ex- 
periment stations, we now have the mist cleared 
away and we can feed our various animals feeds 
that serve the purpose best and at a time when 
most needed. 

THE PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING 

As a result of this investigation there are certain 
well-defined principles that must always be consid- 
ered if the most effective methods are to be put in 
operation in order that the best results may be se- 
cured. The first thing that we are to bear in mind 
is that plants contain many classes of ingredients. 
In the same sense that a piece of meat contains 
blood, fat, lean flesh, bone and other products, so 
plants are found to contain several kinds of ma- 
terials. 

Roughly speaking, we can divide a plant, or in 
other words . a feeding stuff, into five groups of 

13 



14 FARM STOCK 

constituents or ingredients. The first group we 
call the ash or the mineral elements. You know 
that plants contain mineral materials; the ashes 
themselves are the evidence of that fact. A stalk 
of corn or a tree develops until it reaches its ma- 
turity; then decay sets in, and back to earth and 
air go the elements, or man gathers in the 
product, uses it as fuel or for consumption in some 
other way. If burnt, the ash material is left be- 
hind and this is gathered up and returned to the 
fields, thereby supplying the needed fertilizing ele- 
ment that originally came out of the soil brought 
up by plant or tree. 

Now animals require mineral materials. Bones 
are larg-ely made of them — all of which come out of 
the soil. First the mineral compounds are dis- 
solved in the soil and carried into the plant by the 
sap and distributed where needed most. It now 
enters into the work of plant building. Animals 
can usually get along without ash or mineral ma- 
terials. Our plants ordinarily contain enough to 
supply all the needs of the body, exceptions, per- 
haps, being the two elements — sodium and chlorine, 
which we know as common salt. 

As our foods are commonly prepared for the 
table, mineral elements are frequently lacking in 
them. We take the bran of the wheat giving the 
ash material largely (because deposited in the 
bran) to our pigs and calves. We take the flour, 
largely deficient in mineral materials, make it into 
bread, feed it to our children and wonder why their 
bones are not strong and their teeth not good. There 
has been a deficiency of ash material and this sup- 
ply could be furnished only by means of the food 
set on the table. 



THE FEEDING OJ *vNIMALS 



15 



Water — You know how important water is to a 
plant or an animal. Neither would survive very 
long without this wholesome, life-giving influence 
and agent. The water is sucked in by means of 
the tiny, fibrous roots of the plant. It goes up 
through cell by cell, carrying with it the mineral 
elements in solution. As it passes along it gives 
over to the plant the soil foods and passes out into 
the air as vapor. For the time being its mission 




ROUGH FEEDERS 

Poor stock and poor feed, without exception, mean poof 
farming. 

is finished. There is, therefore, a constant current 
of water passing through the plant. 

When plants are young, green and tender they 
contain a great quantity of water, but when har- 
vested or when old, the water content becomes ma- 
terially decreased, in some cases being very small 
indeed. Consequently, when animals are given dry 
food or dry forage they get an insufficient quantity 
of water; unless supplied in some other way they 
would perish. So long as on green pastures, gath- 
ering much of their food in the night time when 



i6 



FARM STOCK 



the dew is on the leaf and grass blade, they can 
about supply their needs; but otherwise the water- 
ing trough is essential to supply this need. 

Carbohydrates — But ash and water little concern 
the feeder. It is three other groups that cause the 
trouble and are conducive to loss or gain. These 
groups are carbohydrates, fat and protein. The 
carbohydrates compose the larger part of the 
rough and coarse materials. This group is known 
as the heat and fat formers. When taken into the 
body they supply the materials that keep up the 
heat of the body, furnish the energy to keep mo- 
tion and activity going; and, if there is a surplus, 
it is stored in the body as fatty tissue. 

This important group is composed of three ele- 
ments, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The oxygen 
and hydrogen come out of the ground as water. 
The carbon comes out of the air, combined with 
oxygen, known in this form as carbon di-oxygen. 
It is exactly the same material that you and I and 
all animals breathe off with every passing breath. 
It is a broken-down tissue, the basis of which is 
carbon. 

Now what is waste for the animal is food for 
the plant, so that the carbon moving about freely 
in the atmosphere, although in a combined form 
with oxygen, enters through the little mouths on 
the under sides of the leaves into the cells and joins 
the tiny molecules of oxygen and hydrogen, and 
becomes a grain of starch. This starch is now 
manufactured. Unless used in the making of some 
other organic compound, it will be available for the 
plant itself or the animal. The starch is very easily 
changed into sugar; in this way it is easily carried 
to all parts of the plant. 



THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 



17 



Fat— The processes of plant growth are still 
shrouded in mystery and always will be until the 
secrets underlying life itself are learned, if they 
ever are; hence, a complete statement of these 
chemical changes will not be attempted here. We 




WEANING-TIME 

When the pigs are weaned, either let them have the run 
of good pasture or plenty of slop. Weaning pigs ought not to 
be an abrupt affair either. 

know, however, that fat, called the oil of plants, or 
the fat of the animal, is composed of the same three 
elements that compose the carbohydrates — carbon, 
hydrogen and oxygen. The only difference lies in 
the fact that a great deal more is stored in the fat 
compounds than those of the carbohydrates. This 
explains why fat is more effective in the production 



1 8 FARM STOCK 

of heat and energy than are the carbohydrates. It 
is more concentrated in fact. Our scientific men 
tell us that a pound of fat contains 2.5 times as 
much heat and fat-making ability as a pound of 
carbohydrates. For practical purposes both groups 
can be used together, but for purposes of lubrica- 
tion and insistent demands both fat and carbo- 
hydrates are essential to the life of the animal. 

Protein — The last group that concerns the feeder 
is the protein of the feeding stuff. In addition to 
the carbon, oxygen and hydrogen found in fats 
and carbohydrates, nitrogen and sulphur are found 
also in protein; the contribution changing the 
character entirely. This protein is the basis of 
protoplasm. Around it is centered the life of the 
plant and animal. The term is used simply to de- 
scribe the materials that, when taken into the body, 
repair the wears and tears. It supplies and keeps 
up the blood, the brain, the tendons, the flesh, the 
internal organs, the skin, etc. In fact, it is found 
in all parts of plants or animals; for this reason 
protein has been called the most important con- 
stituent of a feeding stuff. 

NUTRITIVE RATIO 

With this classification we are now able properly 
to combine feeds so as to get just what is neces- 
sary to supply the daily needs of any special class 
of animal fed for distinct purposes. In compound- 
ing rations the ash and water can be left out of 
consideration of ration making. The three groups 
then to consider are protein, the fats and the car- 
bohydrates. If we know just how much protein 
ought to be given daily, it is not a difficult matter, 
providing the feeds available are of the right kind. 
Thanks again to our scientific men these facts have 



THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS IO, 

been determined. Take pasture grass for instance, 
the great universal farm animal food in America. 
It has been analyzed and we know just how many 
pounds of protein, of carbohydrates and of fat are 
digested in each ioo pounds. 

Let me add here that the digestibility is impor- 
tant also because not all of the food taken into the 
body is digestible — just a part of it; sometimes 90 
per cent, sometimes 75 per cent, sometimes 50 per 
cent, and with some feeds as little as 25 per cent 
is digestible. Hence, with every feeding stuff a 
part is lost and wasted, therefore serves no con- 
tribution to the nutriment of the body. In the 
case of pasture grass, you know by experience 
that animals are healthy and perform their best 
service when feeding freely on it. It is a balanced 
food in itself. In other words, it contains protein, 
carbohydrates and fat in sufficient quantities and 
in just the right proportion to meet the needs of the 
animal. 

In 100 pounds of pasture grass there are 2^2 
pounds of digestible protein, 10.2 pounds of 
digestible carbohydrates and .5 of a pound of 
digestible fat. In other words, for each pound 
of digestible protein we have about five pounds of 
digestible carbohydrates and fat. For every time 
one pound of protein is supplied to furnish flesh 
and muscles, about five pounds of carbohydrates 
and fat are supplied to furnish heat, energy and 
fat. This gives rise, therefore, to the term nutri- 
tive ratio. It indicates the relative proportion of 
the muscle makers to the fat and heat makers. 

FEEDING STANDARDS 

The attempt has been made to determine the 
amount of each constituent that ought to be given 



20 FARM STOCK 

to an animal each day. For instance, a dairy cow 
giving a certain quantity of milk requires in her 
food each day a certain amount of protein, carbo- 
hydrates and fat. For a horse doing heavy farm 
work a different ration would be required and the 
constituents in different proportions. If maximum 
results are to be secured, a different standard for 
young calves is necessary than for fattening steers ; 
and a different ration for young pigs than for ma- 
ture hogs ready for the block. Of course, feeding 
standards are to be taken only as guides to point 
out the way. They are not specifics nor receipts. 

Corn, for instance, is the great stock feed in 
America. It is known as a starch or carbohydrate 
food. It produces fat, but not muscle, hence it is 
not a good feed for young stock or for milk cows, 
because these animals require feeds rich in protein 
for the muscle-making materials. It is always well 
to feed a fattening hog an abundance of corn, but 
there is so little protein in corn that even when fat 
is the end sought, the best results are not always 
obtained. The mixing of corn with other feeds 
often brings better results. Our most progressive 
hog growers now combine green alfalfa and clover 
with the grain from the cornfield. If succulent 
pastures are not available, the hay is hauled out 
that protein may be given in addition to the starch 
of the corn. And if hay be not available, a slaugh- 
tering-house product, like tankage, or oil meal, or 
some other carrier extremely and exceedingly rich 
in nitrogen and protein is mixed with the corn. 

In just the same way cottonseed meal is an illy- 
balanced food. It contains too much protein. It 
lacks the carbohydrates. When fed abundantly to 
cattle, protein is wasted. Consequently, for the 
grain part of a ration corn and cottonseed meal 



THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 21 

blend well together. One is rich in starch, the 
other in protein. The two meet on middle ground 
and supply both materials without waste of one or 
the other and both are supplied with neglect for 
neither. 

THE BALANCED RATION 

These differences existing among the different 
feeds give rise to the balanced ration. No single 
food suffices unless it be pasture grass. Conse- 
quently, the farmer knows that when he feeds a va- 
riety of food he gets the best results. He does not 
need to weigh each pound of food given after he 
has become schooled in the practice of feeding 
farm animals. For all practical purposes, with a 
little thinking and figuring, he can approximately 
estimate the kinds and amounts of the different 
grains and roughage materials that he ought to feed 
each day so as to give his stock the right nutrients 
in the proper proportions. 

He would do wrong to feed corn and corn stover 
and timothy hay. This mixture is bad for the rea- 
son that it carries but one line of food constituents. 
It runs to the carbohydrate class. Likewise cotton- 
seed meal, linseed meal and gluten meal combined 
and fed in conjunction with clover and alfalfa 
would be undesirable, because they run in the other 
direction and supply an overabundance of protein, 
with too little, in fact with very little, of the 
carbohydrates and fats. Every mixture must in- 
clude both classes. Alfalfa and corn, cottonseed 
meal and corn stover, timothy and gluten or linseed 
meal, are all good mixtures for the reason that both 
the "muscle makers" and "fat formers" are in- 
cluded. Each of these mixtures can be improved 



22 



FARM STOCK 



by enlarging on the number of feeds, for a variety 
is always to be preferred to a few feeds. 

Plan to have hay and grain, more than a single 
kind of each is better; and in addition give some 
succulent food like roots or ensilage. This secures 
health, much milk and quick gains. 

The chief value of cottonseed meal, for instance, 




SS^^=^y35^s^^2^±5 



3 




MEMBERS OF A FEEDING SQUAD 

The two larger pigs on the right have been fed corn 
and tankage, while the two smaller ones on the left have 
received corn only. 

rests with protein and fat. Compared with other 
concentrated feeding stuffs cottonseed meal is rich 
in both of these nutrients. But it is low in carbo- 
hydrates. Linseed meal is rich also in protein, 
moderate in quantity of carbohydrates and com- 
pared with cottonseed meal is low in fat. Corn 
meal, while very high in starch, is much lower in 
protein than cottonseed meal or linseed meal. It is 
higher in fat than linseed meal, but considerably 
lower than cottonseed meal. 



THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 



MAKING THE RATION 



23 



Cowpea hay, alfalfa hay, clover hay and other 
legumes are also rich in protein when compared 
with other roughage materials. They are moder- 
ate in carbohydrates, and, compared with corn or 
cottonseed meal or linseed meal, are low in fat. 
Timothy hay, while low in fat and protein, is rel- 
atively high in the carbohydrates. The table fol- 
lowing shows the digestible nutrients of the feeds 
mentioned : 

Digestible Nutrients in 100 Pounds. 





Protein 


Carbohydrates 


Fat 


Cottonseed meal 

Linseed oil meal 

Corn meal_ 


37.0 
30.6 
7.1 
10.8 
10.6 

2.9 
2.0 


16.5 
.38.7 
66.1 
38.4 
37.3 
38.1 
43.7 
33.2 


12.6 
2.9 

4.8 


Cowpea hay 


1.5 


Alfalfa hay__ 


1.4 


Clover hay 


1.8 


Timothy hay 


1.4 


Corn stover 


0.6 







Great Variation in Feeding Stuffs — From this 
table may be seen the variation of the various nu- 
trients. If one were to feed cottonseed meal, for 
instance, he ought not to feed linseed meal also, but 
seek some other feed that is higher in the nutrient 
that is low in cottonseed meal. He might use any 
of the legume hays, but these legume hays are also 
rich in protein and but moderate in the carbo- 
hydrates. Where a reasonable amount of cotton- 
seed meal is fed, it would be better to use some 
other hay not so rich in protein and higher, if pos- 
sible, in the carbohydrates. Timothy hay and corn 
stover are two such feeds and either is excellent to 
be used with the meal. 



24 FARM STOCK 

When corn meal can be obtained at a reasonable 
cost per nutrient, corn meal and cottonseed meal 
can be economically used together, the cottonseed 
meal being rich in protein and low in carbohy- 
drates, while the corn meal is high in carbohydrates, 
but low in protein. From this standpoint these two 
feeds make an excellent combination as the grain 
portion of a ration. The objection to using them 
exclusively is in the fact that they are too con- 




IN NEED OF A SQUARE MEAL 

When farm stock are improperly fed, they are unable 
to do efficient work. Wise feeding is an art that every good 
farmer must acquire. 

centrated. Some bulk feed ought to go with this 
combination and, therefore, any of the hays like 
cowpea, alfalfa, clover, timothy or corn stover can 
always be used satisfactorily. 

If the legume hays are fed, less of the cotton- 
seed meal and more of the corn meal should be ad- 
mitted to the ration; and if timothy hay or corn 
stover is used, then more of the cottonseed meal 
and less of the corn meal. 



THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 2$ 

Since protein contains nitrogen and sulphur, and 
the carbohydrates and fat do not, then it is evident 
that the carbohydrates cannot be used as a substi- 
tute for the protein. Just as nitrogen in a ferti- 
lizer cannot take the place of phosphorus or po- 
tassium, so the carbohydrates and fats cannot take 
the place of the protein. While protein can be sup- 
plied as a provider of carbohydrates and fat, it is 
neither wise nor economical, for the reason that 
protein is an expensive nutrient to obtain. 

The farmer can produce always in abundance his 
carbohydrates. The most common plants grown 
on the farm are, as a rule, rich in the carbohydrates, 
and this class can be supplied at low cost. Unless 
the farmer grows an abundance of legumes, his 
supply of protein is short, and hence his animals 
are supplied with too little of this element and they 
suffer. To overcome this shortage he is forced 
to purchase costly meals or grain materials in order 
to overcome the deficiency in common forage crops 
grown over the greater part of the country. 



CHAPTER III. 
Horses 

When America was discovered there was not a 
horse to be found. Hence, the Red-man, in his 
meager attempts to bring agriculture into his 
service, lacked a beast of burden to assist him. Al- 
though recent investigations indicate that the 
original horse stock had at one time a home on this 
continent, the horse as we know him came into our 
country from across the waters. To find his 
original home we shall need to go into southern 
Asia where the tempests rage and man lives only 
with difficulty. 

The horse comes to us not of his own choosing. 
He left his cold and stormy home, not because he 
preferred some place else, but because man claimed 
him, domesticated him, put him into service and 
rode him away. Why the horse preferred these 
vast steppes to warm climates and more luxurious 
vegetation, I do not know. It may be that he felt 
safer there. He could for one thing see his natural 
enemies, the wild beasts, at a greater distance, so 
that escape was more easily accomplished. Nor 
have we any record of the early domestication of 
horses. The time is too far back in history ; before 
words were written or paper made or printing dis- 
covered. Tradition, however, indicates that far 
back in the past the horse was used for purposes of 
war, service and pleasure. 

It is certain, too, that the horse in the early days 
found man, as well as the wild beasts, his natural 
enemy, for his flesh was not bad at all, and even 

26 



HORSES 2>J 

today in Paris and other large European cities not 
a little meat that is consumed is horse flesh. 
We know nothing about the early handling of 
the horse when first subdued; but we can be rea- 
sonably sure that it was not by gentleness, but by 
force, that he submitted to the demands of man. 

Wild horses are still to be found; but their do- 
mesticated kin are now our friend and helper, and 
generously and willingly assist in every work and 
duty which he is called upon to perform. The 
horse has always retained the principal and best 
qualities of his ancestors — speed- and strength. 
These are the qualities, which served him once for 
flight, that are now employed in the service of 
man. It is not out of place to honor and caress this 
noble beast, which, sturdier, stronger and fleeter 
than ourselves, is, nevertheless, one of the most 
serviceable and devoted of all domesticated ani- 
mals. 



CHAPTER IV. 
Breeds of Horses 

It is quite impossible to make a ranking list o£ 
breeds. Even in the same community, under the 
same conditions and environments, many breeds of 
horses are observed, showing that men honestly 
differ in opinion as to the merits and values and 
varieties of horses, as they do in other matters in 
life. It follows, then, in breeding or working, that 
taste, fancy and individual choice will govern in 
the selection of the breed. Following is a brief dis- 
cussion of the breeds common in America, giv- 
ing their chief characteristics and qualities: 

The Thoroughbred was the first breed of horses 
to be definitely established. It comes from Eng- 
land, where it was produced by mingling many dif- 
ferent strains of oriental blood. The modern 
Thoroughbred is thus the oriental horse, developed 
and improved by centuries of breeding and se- 
lection. 

Three oriental horses are mentioned by all au- 
thorities as having contributed most to the forma- 
tion of the modern Thoroughbred; viz., Darley 
Arabian, Byerly Turk and Godolphin Arabian, the 
only existing male line from these horses tracing 
their ancestry to Eclipse, Herod and Matchem, re- 
spectively, all from the middle of the eighteenth 
century. As stated by Sanders, however, while 
the oriental horse furnished good material as basis 
for the breeder, the skill of the English and Amer- 
ican breeder has done more than the blood of Ara- 
bian and Barb horses. The Arabian is docile and 



BREEDS OF HORSES 20, 

possesses great beauty of form, but he is inferior to 
our Thoroughbred in size, height, speed and en- 
durance. Our Thoroughbreds are imported from 
England or are descendants of horses thus imported, 
with an occasional mixture of the Arab or Barb, 
which is not considered as vitiating the pedigree. 
The Thoroughbred has been bred for the race 
course and similar purposes for centuries. In this 




THREE GOOD FARM-BRED PERCHERONS 

Percheron horses have always been popular in America 
ever since their introduction. They are good walkers, quiet 
and heavy enough to perform all operations on the farm 
that call for weight and pulling power. 

long course of breeding, certain defects have crept 
into his make-up which unfit him for farm uses. 
He has become tall, lithe, light and too nervous for 
everyday use. Nevertheless, the Thoroughbred has 
been used in the improvement of all kinds of 
horses. The favorable influence of a cross with a 
Thoroughbred is recognized on every hand. Trot- 
ters have been built largely on Thoroughbred blood 
and this same blood is at the foundation of nearly 
every fine roadster and driving horse in America. 



SO FARM STOCK 

A heavy Thoroughbred makes an excellent cavalry 
horse, general saddle horse or carriage horse. 

The Trotter — There were trotting or ambling 
horses in England 600 years ago, but it was not 
until 1 81 8 that an authentic record of a mile in 
three minutes was made. In 1806 a horse named 
Yankee is said to have trotted in 2.59, but the 
record is doubtful. The aim of the breeder of 
trotters is to secure a fast trotting gait and the 
speed of these horses has been gradually increased 
during the past century. 

Naturally this reduction of the time is partly 
due to the use of a lighter vehicle, ball bearings, 
pneumatic tires, improvement of the track, etc., 
but a steady increase of speed has been brought 
about by breeding. The Trotter is essentially an 
offshoot or variety of the Thoroughbred, produced 
from the latter by breeding and selection for the 
possession of a trotting gait. The first known or 
definitely recorded sire of a winner in a trotting 
race was Coriander, son of imported Messenger. 
Several other distinguished sires of trotters de- 
scended from the same Messenger. In fact, not 
until 1837 did a noted trotter appear which did not 
come from Messenger. The Morgan family came 
into existence in 1840, the Clay family in 1850 and 
Rysdyk's Hambletonian in i860. 

Pacers do not constitute as yet a recognized 
breed. Many standard-bred trotters number pacers 
among their progeny. In early days in this coun- 
try, pacers were used largely as saddle horses. 
Later they were put on the track. On the race 
track the pace seems to be a somewhat faster gait 
than the trot. For general driving purposes, how- 
ever, the pacer is inferior to the trotter. The hips 



BREEDS OF HORSES 3 1 

slope, the shoulders are high and the form is other- 
wise less perfect. Within the past 25 years the 
speed of the pacer has been greatly increased until 
Dan Patch made a mile in 1.55^. 

The American Saddle Horse — The foundation 
stock of this breed was Denmark (a Thorough- 
bred), John Dillard and Tom Hal (Canadian 
horses), and a number of other Thoroughbred and 
Morgan horses. 

Saddle Gaits — To entitle him to registry the sad- 
dle horse must possess five gaits — walk, trot, rack 
and canter, and either the running walk, slow pace 
or fast trot. The rack is also known as the single- 
foot gait. Style is an important feature. Many 
of these horses are good for saddle or driving and 
a few of them have trotted faster than 2.30. The 
hair is silky, mane of medium length, head small, 
ears erect, neck arched, withers narrow, barrel 
round, legs hard and flat with rather small joints. 
The fox trot can be maintained all day and carries 
a horse at the rate of four to six miles an hour. 

The Morgan Horse originated with Justin Mor- 
gan, owned by a man of the same name from West 
Springfield, Mass. The foundation horse of the 
breed was foaled about 1793 and was claimed to be 
of Thoroughbred descent. A thorough investiga- 
tion by Wallace and others shows pretty clearly 
that the ancestry of the original Morgan horse is 
unknown. Sherman Morgan was among the 
progeny of this horse, his dam being a Narragan- 
sett pacing mare. He is noted as the sire of Black 
Hawk, the most famous of all the Morgans. The 
Morgan horse is essentially a trotter of small size, 
but active and speedy. Fifty years ago they were 
much more in favor than at present, and were 
widely known from Maine to Iowa. 



32 FARM STOCK 

The Hackney originated in northeastern Eng- 
land more than ioo years ago by the careful se- 
lection of carriage mares and the use of Thorough- 
bred sires. The breed was first called Norfolk 
trotters or cobs. The action of the Hackney is 
very high and showy, the leg and feet somewhat 
larger than trotters, the general form rounder and 
less angular, back short and stout, height 14.2 to 
15.3 hands, hindquarters, rounded, shoulders slop- 
ing, color chestnut or brown or bay. The knee ac- 
tion is high and the hind legs are always kept under 
the body. The Hackney is essentially a heavy 
harness horse. He is too small for the farmer and 
too slow for racing. His endurance is also not 
great. He is merely a park horse and high step- 
per. Hackneys are bred extensively in Canada and 
in recent years many have been imported into this 
country, especially in New York, to satisfy a fad 
among fashionable society. 

The French Coach Horse was at first called 
Demi-Sang on account of the fact that it was orig- 
inated by crossing the English Thoroughbred on 
native French mares, the latter carrying consider- 
able oriental blood. Toward the end of the eight- 
eenth century the French government undertook 
this work in order to obtain better cavalry re- 
mounts. After the type was fairly well established, 
breeding was continued in the government studs 
and by farmers, under government supervision. 
Thoroughbred stallions are still used occasionally, 
so that some French coachers may be self -breeds. 

The French coacher stands higher than the Hack- 
ney, the knee action is not so high and the general 
form more rangy. The weight is 1050 to 1400 
pounds and the color bay, brown or black. The 
type is poorly fixed and it does not breed true. 



BREEDS OF HORSES 33 

Some are much coarser than others, which may 
show their Thoroughbred ancestry. In the hands 
of skilled breeders, the French coach horse may 
be used in the production of heavy harness horses 
and for this purpose they have been imported in 
small numbers. It is probable, however, that a 
much better type of this sort can be obtained from 
the American Trotter by selecting the heaviest ani- 
mals. 

The German Coach Horse is a name used to 
cover several breeds of coach horses bred in the 
northern German provinces. The most important 
breeds are the Oldenburg, Hanoverian, East Fries- 
land and East Prussian, the first named being the 
most promising. According to some authorities, 
this type was known in Oldenburg as early as 1608. 
The breed was greatly improved by crossing Thor- 
oughbred stallions on the Oldenburg mares under 
government supervision. This horse is black, 
brown, bay or chestnut in color, 15 to 16H hands 
in height, 1200 to 1500 pounds in weight. The 
legs are strong, but smooth and the carriage of the 
head, neck and tail is graceful. The gait is much 
like that of the French coacher. On the western 
range, German coach horses have produced fine 
grades from native mares, and the breed seems to 
be on the increase in this country. 

The Cleveland Bay is a coach breed which origi- 
nated in England by crossing the Thoroughbred 
upon native mares of the Cleveland district. It is 
noted for coaching and long distance work. The 
color is bay, weight 1,200 to 1,500 pounds, height 16 
to 16.2 hands. The croup is straight, back short, 
thighs strong. The Cleveland bay is adapted for 
pulling heavy loads at considerable speed. He has 
much to recommend him to the farmer. Since the 



34 FARM STOCK 

establishment of the stud book in 1884, additional 
speed has been secured by the further admixture 
of Thoroughbred blood. The Yorkshire coach 
horse is very similar to the Cleveland bay and is 
considered by some as a family of the latter. It 
shows more of the Thoroughbred, occasional white 







' •.. ** 






' 


K^r* 




■il'^-y , V\| '.'■ **r- 


" 












« 




/ '■,i-;0^ 




t-^i 


i y 



PLOW HORSES 

In the conquest of American lands, the farm horse has been 
the most conspicuous of all farm animals 

spots and does not breed as true as the Cleveland 
bay. 

Influence of Thoroughbred — From the above 
discussion of light breeds of horses, the immense 
influence of the blood of the Thoroughbred is ap- 
parent. The Thoroughbred has furnished the 
foundation of the Trotter, Saddle Horse, Pacer, 



BREEDS OF HORSES 35 

Orlov Trotter, Morgan, Hackney, French, German 
and Yorkshire coach, and Cleveland bay. The ori- 
ental blood is "hot blood." The Thoroughbred and 
its modifications in various modern breeds are 
known as "hot blooded" as contrasted with the 
"cold blooded" draft horses which originated in 
continental Europe. The blood of the Thorough- 
bred is everywhere present in horses which are dis- 
tinguished for speed, courage and endurance. Even 
the Welsh pony carries some oriental blood. 

Draft Type— As the light or "hot blooded" 
horses are all descended, with modification, from 
the Thoroughbred, so the draft or "cold blooded" 
horses are descended from the old black horse of 
Flanders. At the dawn of history this wild black 
horse was found throughout continental Europe. 
In northern Europe the conditions seemed to be 
favorable to the development of large men and large 
horses. By skillful breeding and an occasional 
mixture with oriental or native blood, several heavy 
breeds have been produced from the black horse of 
Europe. Thus from England we have obtained 
the Clydesdale, Shire Horse and Suffolk Punch; 
from France the Percheron and French draft horse; 
and from Belgium the Belgian draft horse or Flem- 
ish horse. 

Before the days of railroads much freighting 
was done by horses through Pennsylvania from the 
seaboard to the Ohio river. For this heavy work 
the Conestoga horse was produced and was at one 
time famous as a draft horse in Pennsylvania. This 
horse was a product of local breeders, based on 
imported heavy horses of unknown blood. The 
Conestoga horse stood 16 to 18^2 hands high and 
weighed 1,600 to 1,900 pounds. With the advent of 
railroads the breed was allowed to become extinct. 



$6 FARM STOCK 

The Clydesdale originated in Scotland, being 
first referred to in 171 5. The Black Flemish horse 
and other heavy horses were crossed with the early 
form of the type. At present the type is well fixed 
and the breed is very true and prepotent. The 
color is bay or brown with white markings on 
the face and legs. Other colors, such as gray, 
black and chestnut, sometimes appear. The flanks 
are lighter in color, fading to a dun on the 
belly. Mares weigh 1,500 to 2,000, stallions 1,800 
to 2,200 and the height is 16 to 17 hands. The 
head is long, neck medium, leg broad and fine, 
silky feathering below the knee and hock, 
shoulders sloping. The Clydesdale shows a fast, 
elastic walk and a fairly good trot. The waist is 
sometimes too small, the back too long and the 
feet too flat. In these points much improvement 
has been made of late. The forehead is broad, 
hindquarters well developed, leg joints strong, tail 
well carried. The special merits of the Clydesdale 
are the smooth, clean legs, and the long graceful 
strides. 

The Shire Horse — The black horse of Flanders, 
imported to England and crossed on native heavy 
mares, gave rise to the old war horse or "great 
horse," which was much in favor as a charger in 
the days of knight-errantry. 

The Shire horse resembles the Clydesdale, but is 
heavier and coarser. The color is black, bay, brown 
or gray; height 16 to 17.2 hands, weight 1,600 to 
2,300 pounds, neck short, nose Roman, shoulder 
straight, body short, deep and round, back broad, 
legs strong with heavy bone and "feather" extend- 
ing around on the sides. The gait is slower and 
less stylish than in the Clydesdale, but the animal 
is stronger and less likely to be "weedy." The 



BREEDS OF HORSES 



37 



shoulders and pasterns are more erect than in the 
Clydesdale and the hair is coarser. 

The Percheron is the national horse of France 
and originated in the district of La Perche. Until 
1883 all draft horses in France were referred to 
indifferently as Norman, Norman-Percheron, Per- 







■ 




V ' 


mr > 


$*', ' \ - • 




i k 1 ■& '1 


i^MPHI 


SBar 
W 


^"^^r^^s^. Jh • 



A TYPICAL PERCHERON STALLION 

This prize-winning- Percheron represents the grace, qual- 
ity and high breeding of the draft horse. The Percheron is 
known in every state and county in the country. 



cheron or French Draft. In that year the name 
Percheron was adopted. At first two types, the 
light and the heavy, were recognized. The light 
Percheron was most in favor and was used as a 
coach horse. He weighed 1,400 to 1,600 pounds, 
stood about 15.2 hands high and had considerable 
speed as well as strength. The neck was trim, the 



38 FARM STOCK 

feet well formed and the legs only slightly feath- 
ered. In 1732, many of the oriental horses were 
captured in France from the invading Saracens, 
and this blood, mixed with that of the European 
black horse, yielded the Percheron. Shire horses 
were also imported from England and their blood 
added to the existing mixture. Du Hays in his 
treatise on the Percheron claims an Arabian ances- 
try for this horse. 

The color of the modern Percheron is black, 
gray, or white. He stands 16 to 17.2 hands high, 
and weighs 1,600 to 2,200 pounds. The legs are 
short, blocky and without feather, the hoof is good, 
head small, face straight, neck arched, shoulders 
and hips sloping, body deep, round and broad. The 
Percheron is powerful, but his legs and feet are 
his strong points. He shows his heel in walking, 
and his action is good, but not quite so swinging 
as that of the Clydesdale. The percentage of 
blacks has been increased by the Americans. 
Roans, bays, browns and chestnuts are occasionally 
observed, but probably indicate impure breeding. 
The weak points in the Percheron are lightness of 
leg below the knee and hock, rolling gait in front 
and wide straddling behind. These defects, how- 
ever, are only seen in a certain percentage. For 
breeding, stallions with oblique pasterns should be 
selected. 

Alexander rightly calls attention to the beneficial 
effects which the Percheron has exercised upon 
our native horses. This horse is by far the most 
popular of all the draft horses, and breeds fairly 
true to type. He is docile, easily kept in condition, 
of good constitution and well adapted to all sorts of 
draft purposes. When crossed on native mares, 
the Percheron produces excellent express, farm, 



BREEDS OF HORSES 



39 



draft and general purpose horses, according to 
the size of the mare. "Where the blood of this 
breed predominates in a district, no other breed 
should be used. Continued breeding in the right 
line is highly advisable and will result in the pro- 
duction of practically pure bred horses of great 
usefulness and value." 

The French Draft has the same ancestry as the 
Percheron and was once included with the latter. 




CHILDREN S HORSES 

Thousands of ponies are to be found on American farms. 
While intended for the enjoyment of children, they may he 
made to do much useful work. 



In fact, the breed is now in process of differentia- 
tion from the Percheron and can scarcely be dis- 
tinguished from it. The prevailing colors are 
gray, bay and black. The French Draft is slightly 
heavier than the Percheron and useful for fewer 
purposes, being purely a heavy draft horse. 

The Belgian Draft Horse, or Flemish horse, 
stands nearer than any other breed to the old black 
horse of Flanders. His ancestors were first used 
as war chargers and later for draft purposes. 
Until recently the Belgian Draft horses imported 



40 FARM STOCK 

into the United States have lacked quality. The 
Percheron and Clydesdale possess more style and 
better action than the Belgian, and are therefore 
more in favor in this country. The Belgian has 
less feather on the legs than the Clydesdale, shorter 
neck, wider breast and larger body. 

The Belgian Draft is the largest of all horses, 
weighing 1,700 to 2,500 pounds. The preferred 
colors are brown, bay and black, with an occasional 
roan or chestnut. They are closer to the ground 
than the Percheron and less trim in appearance. 
The head is large, ears sometimes lopped, neck 
thick, shoulders straight, back short and broad, 
chest deep, legs short and flat, feet large, heel low. 
The defects of the Belgian are clumsy gait, coarse 
neck, sloping croup and too erect pasterns. Atten- 
tion is being given to the correction of these points. 
Belgians are slowly gaining in favor among Ameri- 
can breeders on account of their great power and 
easy keeping qualities. 



CHAPTER V. 
Horse Breeding 

While we have many races and breeds of horses, 
we may with all correctness classify them into 
three groups. By continually selecting* the heaviest 
animals of a heavy race and giving them such food 
as their needs require, our heavy breeds of draft 
horses have been obtained — horses that rear them- 
selves like giants of fairy tales to the eyes of those 
who see them for the first time. In using for 
propagation the fleetest animals of a fleet and 
noble race and giving to their product an education 
that develops muscles and tendons, and by carefully 
repressing all tendency to lay on fat, breeders are 
obtaining more and more animals of incredible 
speed which on the American race track are taking 
less and less time to cover a certain distance. By 
using the smallest specimens of a race of small 
ponies, breeders have succeeded in producing 
horses no larger than mastiffs. I saw a dwarf 
horse not long ago exhibited at one of our passing 
shows that was slightly less than two feet in height. 
Breeders have also seized and reproduced the 
freaks of nature, such as the albino horses (born 
white). 

When the horse was wild he looked after his 
own food, his own protection and his own shelter. 
He naturally made little progress, and what pro- 
gress he did make was of a nature to fit him to his 
conditions and environments of life, rather than 

41 



42 FARM STOCK 

to fit him to do useful work, or otherwise to con- 
tribute to the pleasure and happiness of his goodly 
friend, man. 

SELECTING TO GET HEAVY HORSES 

With the coming of civilization, however, man 
took the horse in hand and helped him. Inasmuch 
as the horse could more rapidly till the soil, he was 
used for this purpose. An early observation was 
that the heavier the horse the harder work he 
could do and the heavier the load he could draw; 
hence there was an unconscious selection in de- 
veloping animals to do the heavy draft work of 
the world. 

As we have the draft horse today, he possesses 
striking characteristics. By looking at him from 
the front you see that he is wide between the eyes, 
moderately long in face and rather wide between 
the shoulders. If he stands correctly there is be- 
tween his feet the measured distance of another 
hoof. 

A plumb line dropped from the point of his 
shoulder divides the forearm, knee, canon and 
hoof in equal parts, thus insuring an even, regular 
movement of the leg. Stepping around to the 
side, the first observation will be that the neck is 
relatively short, but it is heavy and muscular. It 
blends evenly and smoothly into the shoulders, the 
breast at the bottom, and the withers at the top. 
The shoulder slopes gently upward and, compared 
with the race horse, is rather straight. The back is 
well covered with muscle, is broad and well fleshed, 
with well-covered hips, presenting a view that 
would indicate the back not to be long. The gen- 
eral slope over the hips becomes rather abrupt, for 



HORSE BREEDING 43 

the hips are well muscled, thus giving force and 
power ; for it is from the rear that ability to draw 
comes. The same well-muscled form continues 
about the buttocks and the thighs. Here are shown 
short muscles, but muscles that are large and 
strong. The knees and the hocks should be deep 
and broad and rather large. The usual trouble in 
the hocks, known as curb, is due often to bad con- 
formation. The hock is not wide and deep enough ; 
leverage of muscles to stand the strain and to do 
the hard work demanded of this region of the body 
is not sufficient. 

Special attention should be paid to the feet, for 
unless a horse has strong, well-made feet, he is 
poor material for either field or road work. 

A further observation from the side shows the 
horse to be square or of a rectangular appearance. 
The height from the ground to the withers is 
about the same as the height from the ground to the 
croup. These measurements, in turn, are practi- 
cally the same as the distance from the point of 
the shoulder to the quarter or buttock. Carrying 
these measurements still further, either of them is 
just about two and one-half times the length of 
the head, which in no case should be more than 
three times the width between the eyes. 

These measurements have been rather carefully 
worked out and much of the beauty and ease of 
action and grace and efficiency of this noble ani- 
mal is due to these proportions along the line of 
law and order, rather than of casual chance. 

An awkward, ungainly horse is, as a rule, an 
inefficient, little-doing horse. He is awkward and 
ungainly, because his proportions are bad, and as 
a result the work he accomplishes represents the 
minimum quantity. 



44 



FARM STOCK 



But there is a radical difference in the type be- 
tween draft and speed horses. While the trotting 
horse requires great width between the eyes (and 
it might be added that width between the eyes is 
an absolute beauty in any animal), he is longer in 
face, longer in neck and leaner in appearance. In' 
fact, the neck is thin, the chest is very deep, but 
perhaps not so wide as in the case of the draft 
horse. The shoulder is more sloping and longer, 
and there is less muscle at the meeting place of the 




FARM TEAM AT WORK 

Quietly and calmly they stand; but whenever needed, 
farm horse responds willingly and faithfully 



the 



two shoulders. The back is long, but thin and nar- 
row, and slightly fleshed; the hips are prominent, 
the croup quite horizontal, and attached to thin, 
long muscles that speed may be accelerated. The 
buttocks and thighs are slightly covered with flesh, 
but the hock is wide, deep and thick and the feet 
are hard and strong — just as they are with the 
draft horse. The leg and canon bones of the 
speed horse are longer than those of the draft 
horse. Now, why these differences? Each type 
represents a specialty. The speed horse is a poor 



HORSE BREEDING 45 

working horse, because he lacks conformation; and 
the draft horse will never win a race on the track 
if competing with special-bred race horses because 
he possesses no qualities of speed. The leg of 
the draft horse is too short, the forearm is too 
short, the shoulders are too upright and the mus- 
cles are too thick and too slow-acting. The speed 
horse possesses the opposite characteristics, which 
are basal features of speed. 

Take a long, thin rubber. You can extend it 
a long way and when released it passes through 
the extended distance quite rapidly. Take this 
same piece of rubber and lap it over itself a few 
times so as to shorten it into one-fourth its original 
length and you get greater power when the rubber 
contracts ; but it acts more slowly and extends itself 
less. That is the way it is with horses. The long- 
legged, long-muscled race horse can reach out and 
cover greater distances than the draft horse because 
of these special features. But these differences in 
type go deeper than mere skin and flesh. The 
skeleton presents these differences even more prom- 
inently than the living flesh. You have but to 
study the skeleton to see the reason and the proof 
of the foregoing explanation of differences between 
the two types. 

Function is based on conformation. You must 
have type and conformation. It is useless to at- 
tempt to press one into the service of the other. 
Farmers too often make the mistake of inter- 
changing type along with other breeding opera- 
tions. The mating of draft with speed types for 
a generation or two and then changing to the car- 
riage type and then back again to either the 
speed or draft type, causes an intermixture of 



46 



FARM STOCK 



blood and function that makes a good-for-nothing 
individual. 

Select Your Line of Animals — If it is a large 
draft type, then breed straight to that line. If you 
want lighter horses, do not make the mistake of 
breeding down in size. Rather take individuals of 




A FOUR- YEAR-OLD SHIRE STALLION 

The Shire horse is not so well known as the Percheron, 
but the breed is gaining friends very rapidly. 

some breed that possess already the characteristics 
you want, and improve these by careful selection 
and mating. By so doing you will then get quality, 
an important character for any breed. 

The carriage or coach horse comes in between, 
the two extremes of draft and speed. These horses 



HORSE BREEDING 47 

supply the demand of the general purpose horse, 
although they are not just that, but horses of this 
class are able to do considerable work, and at the 
same time have greater speed characteristics than 
the heavy draft horse. But they are neither speed 
nor draft horses and would be outclassed in either 
case. They do light road work or heavy harness 
work and do it well. They have their work to do 
just as the speed or draft horse has its work to do. 

CONFORMATION OF THE DRAFT HORSE 

Many farmers have attended our state fairs and 
seen modern draft horses on exhibition. The up- 
to-date draft horse is one that stands close to the 
ground, with short legs and broad base. The feet 
are well apart, with space enough for another foot 
of the same size to be placed between them. The 
back of this animal will be somewhat shorter than 
that of the speed horse. It is with the hind legs 
that he propels himself, and thus it can be easily 
seen that, since the collar is on the shoulder, the 
whole weight of the load is drawn by the back. 
Therefore it must be short, broad and well muscled. 

The shoulder of this horse is long and well 
shaped, so as to give a good base to the collar. It 
should be more nearly perpendicular than that of 
the speed animal. However, sloping shoulders are 
often found in our best draft horses. The hocks 
of this horse will show rather a narrow angle, be- 
cause it is by this that a great leverage is given 
and he is able to move heavy loads. The body is 
massive, low set, ample, very muscular and cylin- 
drical. The horse should have solid, large, broad 
bones and limbs; the latter are well formed and 
properly placed under his body. 



CHAPTER VI. 
Feeding the Horse 

The entire anatomy and physiology of its diges- 
tive apparatus show that the food of the horse 
should be nutritious in quality, supplied frequently, 
and in comparatively small quantities. The food, 
of whatever variety, must, of course, be of good 
quality, sound and wholesome; but beyond this, no 
specific rules can be laid down for general applica- 
tion. The amount and character of the food must 
vary with the size and constitution of the horse, 
the climate and season, the amount of work re- 
quired, and the country it lives in. 

The horse is an inhabitant of nearly all parts 
of the earth, and exhibits a wonderful adaptabil- 
ity to various situations. In Arabia its principal 
food is barley, varied by scant herbage, and 
even dates; in Iceland and some of the Shetland 
Islands it subsists mainly on dried fish. On the 
western plains, great herds of horses retain 
splendid health and vigor through the rigid, stormy 
winters upon the dried bunch grass, often having 
to paw away the snow to reach it. In England 
the food of the horse is mainly hay, oats and beans, 
while in various parts of the Continent horses are 
fed on rye, barley and inferior qualities of wheat. 
In India the common food of horses is a plant 
of the pea family. In some parts of the United 
States and the southern regions of Europe, Indian 
corn forms an important element in horse food, 
but not to such an extent that "American horses 
rarely taste oats/' as is asserted by an eminent 



FEEDING THE HORSE 49 

English author. Good, well-made hay, free from 
dust and dirt, and sound, well-seasoned oats may 
in a general way be regarded as the staple food 
for horses. But no animal can do as well on a 
monotonous diet, even if of good quality, as it will 
with a judicious variety. 

MIX THE FEEDS TO FIT THE NEEDS 

With the results of skillful chemical analysis be- 
fore him, the feeder need no longer proceed in a 
haphazard manner, or follow blindly in old ruts, 
often buying at heavy cost certain standard kinds 
of food, when equally valuable material of other 
kinds is cheap and plentiful. He has only to adjust 
the rations in such a manner that they will con- 
tain about the correct proportions of the various 
elements. Those proportions should be varied 
according to the season, the amount of work 
required, and the constitution of the horse. 

Roughage Feeds for Horses — Timothy hay with 
oats may well be regarded in this country as the 
standard article for feeding horses. But there are 
many other grasses equally available. In the 
prairie regions and farther west, there are several 
species of blue- joint and other wild grasses scarcely 
inferior to timothy. Some of these attain immense 
growth in rich bottoms, and if cut at the right time, 
and properly made into hay, are both palatable and 
wholesome for horses. 

Hungarian grass and German millet, if cut and 
cured just as the first blossoms appear, make a 
hay scarcely inferior to timothy. 

Clover and alfalfa are rich in albuminoids. 
Either one makes a well-balanced ration with corn 
meal, corn fodder, straw or other material contain- 
ing an excess of carbohydrates. 




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FEEDING THE HORSE 51 

Corn fodder is a better feed for horses than is 
generally supposed. But it must be bright and 
well cured. If allowed to stand for months in 
small stooks, with the butts on the soft ground, 
and the tops and leaves exposed to the weather, 
it is unfit for fodder. On the other hand, if stored 
away in a barn while damp, and allowed to mold 
and rot, it is not only unpalatable, but actually per- 
nicious to the health of animals which are com- 
pelled to eat it. Corn fodder contains an excess 
of carbohydrates for a well-balanced food, and 
when fed either green or dry, should be mixed 
with clover, bran or any other nitrogenous food 
material. It is eaten with a better relish if cut up, 
crushed, moistened and fed in connection with 
bran, oil meal, or cottonseed meal. 

Grain Feeds for Horses — Oats are pre-eminently 
the grain for horses, if only one kind of grain is 
fed. They contain a large per cent of nutrients in 
almost the correct ratio for the horse's require- 
ments. The fibrous husk in which the grain is in- 
closed serves a valuable purpose in dividing the 
mass in the horse's stomach, and exposing it to 
the action of the digestive fluids. Oats should be 
at least three months old before they are fed. 
When new, they are difficult to digest, and liable to 
give a horse the colic. They should be plump and 
of full weight. The husk on light, inferior oats 
is as heavy as those which are sound and heavy, 
the deficiency in weight coming wholly out of the 
grain. Thirty-two pounds constitute a legal 
bushel, but good samples weigh more, running as 
high as 44 pounds to the measured bushel. Six 
quarts of the latter weigh nearly as much as 
a peck of the former, and contain far more nutri- 
ment. This fact should be taken into considera- 



52 FARM STOCK 

tion in buying and feeding. If fed whole, even 
to young horses with good teeth, oats are more 
or less imperfectly masticated and a part passes 
through undigested. Many judicious feeders have 
them crushed, to secure more complete mastication. 

Indian corn is the great food gram of America, 
and of the immense annual crops, aggregating 
more than two billion bushels, the greater part is 
fed to domestic animals. Corn is largely used as 
an article of horse food, either unground or in the 
form of meal. Corn is a highly concentrated food, 
heating and deficient in muscle- forming elements. 
When fed to horses, it should, therefore, be com- 
bined with nitrogenous foods in such proportions 
as are best adapted to the season, amount of work 
required and other conditions. It is quite a usual 
practice with many horse owners to feed their 
horses corn in the ear, under the idea of saving the 
expense of grinding. But this is very questionable 
economy, for a considerable part of the grain must 
go through undigested. On the other hand, if fed 
in the form of fine meal, it should be mixed with 
several times its own bulk of cut hay or other 
coarse feed to separate the particles and expose 
them to the action of the digestive fluids of the 
stomach. If fed alone, corn meal becomes im- 
pacted in the stomach, forming a plastic, adhesive 
mass nearly impenetrable to the gastric juice. Se- 
vere, and in some cases, fatal colic is the frequent 
result. Even if the meal is mixed with oats, the 
mass is too dense to form a safe and desirable 
food, unless fed in combination with a coarser ma- 
terial. 

Barley is the principal grain food of horses in 
many parts of the world. The Arabs feed their 



FEEDING THE HORSE 53 

famous horses largely on barley ; the French in Al- 
geria have adopted the same practice. In some of 
the great breeding stables of Illinois barley and 
oats are ground together in proportions varying 
with the season, and are fed to stallions and mares. 
The introduction of a black, hull-less barley into 
cultivation is likely to lead to still more extensive 
use of this grain as food for horses. The black, 
hull-less variety is not used in 'malting; it yields 
large crops in many parts of the Northwest beyond 
the "corn belt" and is as easily raised as oats. 
This new variety seems likely to become an impor- 
tant item in the general grain crops of the country. 
Barley contains a larger proportion of the elements 
which produce heat and fat than any other grain, 
except Indian corn. Moreover, it weighs one-half 
more per bushel than oats, and the hull-less variety 
is still heavier. When either barley or corn and 
oats are ground and fed together, they should be 
mixed according to weight, not bulk. 

Wheat bran is a valuable article for horse feed, 
both for its peculiar action on the digestive organs, 
and as a balance to richer foods. When fed alone, 
it is generally in the form of warm mash. To 
make this, take four quarts of pure wheat bran, 
add two tablespoons of salt, pour over it boiling 
water, and stir quickly until all is wet, but not too 
thin ; cover closely to confine the steam ; let it stand 
until cool arid give it in place of the regular 
feed. Such a mash once a week, while the horse 
is kept in stables, will gently open the bowels and 
promote digestion. It should be given at night, 
and preferably before a day of rest, as the imme- 
diate effect is somewhat weakening*. Bran may 
also be mixed with ground oats, corn or barley. 



54 FARM STOCK 

Linseed cake is largely employed as animal food 
in England, the greater part of that made in this 
country being exported there. But Americans are 
learning its value, and are feeding more of it than 
formerly. It acts both as a medicine and as a 
food. It is mildly laxative to the bowels, sooth- 
ing to the air passages, and gives gloss to the coat. 
The "new process" meal contains much less oil 
than that made by the old process, and is therefore 
less relaxing and fattening, while the proportion 
of albuminoids is greater. As a feed substance oil 
meal is useful mainly to mix in small quantities 
with other materials. A ration containing six parts 
of oats, four of corn, and two of linseed meal, 
would be very nearly equivalent to the oats and 
beans which form the grain staple of food given 
to horses in England. 

Cottonseed meal is similar in its chemical com- 
position to linseed meal, but is more highly con- 
centrated, and contains a larger proportion of 
nitrogenous elements. It should be fed with 
caution, in small quantities of two to four pounds. 

Carrots have a food value greater than theif 
composition would indicate. Eighty-five per cent 
of their bulk is water, and of the solids which re- 
main, nearly one-tenth is fiber. Yet they serve to 
cool the system, and assist in the digestion of other 
food. They should be fed a few at a time, two or 
three times a week. Parsnips have nearly the same 
composition as carrots, except that they contain 
even a larger per cent of water. In England and 
France they are fed in the same way as carrots. 

In making up a feeding ration for a horse, the 
first point is to find out how much the horse will 
eat; the next is to regulate the ration according 
to the weather, and the amount and character of 



FEEDING THE HORSE 55 

the work the horse is expected to perform. The 
harder the work and the colder the weather, the 
greater the proportion of carbohydrates required 
in the food. 

Salt is doubtless wholesome and beneficial for 
horses, notwithstanding the contrary opinion of 
some people who have given attention to the mat- 
ter. But horses are fond of salt, and thrive better 
with it than if deprived of it. The best method 
of supplying this article is to keep a lump of rock 
salt at all times where the horse can lick it. Re- 
ceptacles are made of wire for this purpose, but a 
small wooden or iron box, fastened near the man- 
ger or rack, will serve nearly as well. 

WATERING THE HORSE 

The horse in a state of nature feeds upon juicy, 
succulent herbage, and drinks at pleasure from 
pure water. When these conditions are changed 
for confinement in the stable or work on the dusty 
road, with a diet consisting mainly, if not ex- 
clusively, of dry hay and grain, the health and 
well-being of the horse, as well as common human- 
ity, demand careful and judicious attention to the 
matter of water supply. The water must always 
be pure and fresh. No animal is more delicate and 
fastidious about its drink than a horse, and one of 
them will suffer agonies of thirst rather than 
■quench it with impure, tepid or stale water. It 
should be given in small quantities and frequently, 
and never in large draughts, when the horse comes 
in heated, or immediately before being put to work. 

Some horses require more water than others, the 
quantity varying with the amount of hay they will 
eat, propensity to sweat, etc. The water should 



56 FARM STOCK 

not be excessively cold. Copious draughts of cold 
water, when the horse is heated, produce colic, or 
founder is likely to ensue. If pumped from a cold 
well, it may stand until the chill is taken off. Hard 
water is much decried as causing harshness in the 
coat, and soft water is doubtless better. Yet no 
part of the country produces finer horses than the 
limestone states of Vermont and Kentucky. If a 
change is made from soft to hard water it should 
be done gradually, as the horse becomes accustomed 
to it. Where rain water is given it should be kept 
clean and aerated. Stale, foul water from a neg- 
lected cistern is unfit for a horse, and will be re- 
fused except in case of extreme thirst. 

Water When at Work In Fields — Horses when 
working in the field are subjected to great suffer- 
ing from thirst. From morning till noon, and 
again from noon until the hour of quitting for the 
night, the horses are kept in the dusty field, often 
under a burning sun, without a drink. The driver 
makes frequent visits to the water jug in the shade, 
without giving a thought to his thirsty horses. If 
there is no brook or other water supply within con- 
venient distance, a keg of it, with a pail, may be 
carried along and kept in the shade. 

When a horse comes in heated and tired from 
hard driving, nothing is more grateful and sooth- 
ing than a few quarts of gruel made by throwing 
a handful of oatmeal or linseed meal in a gallon 
of boiling water. If none of this is prepared, a 
handful of oatmeal in half a bucket of cold water 
may be given. 

Watering at the Barn — Many good horsemen 
prefer watering before feeding, which, I think, is 
a good practice, especially in summer, as the horse 
requires a large amount of water to supply the 



FEEDING THE HORSE 57 

needs of the body. After perspiring almost all 
day, the horse comes in pretty much exhausted in 
the evening, due to the loss of water and energy. 
Before being fed his grain, he should be given 
water and allowed to cool. If he is very warm, 
only a limited amount should be given at one time, 
but he must be watered frequently until he gets all 
that he wants as soon as he is cool enough to 
take it. 

It is a good plan to allow a little time for the 
horses to cool off before giving them the evening 
grain ration. Some men allow them to stand and 
eat hay while they themselves are at supper and 
then feed the grain ration later. After standing all 
night, the horse will be thirsty and will appreciate 
a drink the first tiling in the morning. If water 
is given before feeding instead of after feeding, 
there will be no tendency to wash the food out of 
the stomach into the intestines. 

Large quantities of cold water taken into the 
stomach immediately after a meal tend to arrest 
digestion by cooling the stomach and diluting the 
digestive fluids, which may cause colic. 



CHAPTER VII. 
The Care and Management of Horses 

It is no small matter to give farm horses just 
the sort of care necessary and to manage them in 
the most satisfactory way, unless very thoughtful 
study be given that feed, work, stabling and rest be 
all properly adjusted. It is a very easy thing to 
overfeed, or to , feed materials not just ideally 
adapted to the purpose. Just how much work a 
horse ought to be expected to do in summer or 
winter must always be considered by the man who 
has the team in charge; likewise, when to pasture 
and the sort of pasture, and both in relation to 
other feed, are problems not yet solved, but yet 
very important ones to both the owner and to the 
animals. 

The winter period usually calls for no great 
amount of work on the part of horses ; and on 
many farms little care and attention are paid to 
farm horses. As a rule, all of the feed that is 
needed is supplied; at least enough to induce fat- 
tening, although the stock may be dirty and some- 
what unthrifty. How often it is that we see horses 
which are fat and in good condition put to hard 
spring and summer work and abruptly or gradually 
decrease in substance and weight! Either the 
horse is worked too hard or he is not receiving 
the food and kind of food and care in other di- 
rections that he should have. 

During the winter season good water is a first 
essential, as in the summer; and the daily ration 
should contain bright, clear, roughage material 

58 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF HORSES 59 

with some grain to furnish the necessary nutrients 
for the maintenance of the animal in good form 
and condition. 

The winter ration for the average work horse 
does not need to be expensive. Some alfalfa, fed 
two or three times a week (and if alfalfa is not 
available, then clover or cowpea hay) should be 
supplied for the protein or muscle-making ingre- 
dients. In addition you can feed oats straw, bright, 
clear, corn stover or any ordinary hay. But corn 
and corn stover, a common winter ration for work 
horses, is not the best sort of feed, because it is 
lacking in protein, and contains an over-supply of 
carbohydrates. 

Whether horses during the winter are to be 
sheltered in stalls or allowed to run in the open 
will depend upon circumstances. Where many 
horses are kept together during the winter and are 
not subjected to work, the open field with good 
protection from wind, storm and rain by means of 
sheds, covered straw-piles and the like, is very sat- 
isfactory. 

While daily grooming is desirable, it is not es- 
sential for common stock if good shelter and good 
feed of the right quality and quantity are other- 
wise provided. Feed should contain considerable 
variety, for horses like a change just as other ani- 
mals, or people. 

The substance of winter treatment can be boiled 
down to good food, plenty of fresh air, constant 
exercise and shelter. During the summer and work 
season, of course, the closest attention must be paid 
to feed, daily grooming must be done, fresh water 
must be provided, the most nutritious, appetizing 
and refreshing grain and fodder furnished, and 
the general health of the animal maintained. 



60 FARM STOCK 

THE MANAGEMENT OF STALLIONS 

The stable for stallions must be arranged so 
that they can have plenty of fresh air and sun- 
shine. The stalls must be roomy and smooth so 
that they can have perfect freedom to move about 
in them without injury to themselves. Everything 
about the stable must be kept thoroughly clean and 
fresh bedding must be supplied each day in abun- 
dance. In feeding, care must be taken not to over- 
do it. Their appetites must be kept sharp. The 
best results are obtained by frequent feeding. 
Small proportions can be given at first and then 
gradually increased until a full portion is given, 
which varies according to the size and condition 
of the horse. 

A Good Ration — For a growing three-year-old 
stallion, a fair feed upon which he would do well 
would be, in the morning, five quarts oats and four 
fair-sized carrots; at noon, eight to ten quarts 
mixed feed, consisting of two-thirds bran and one- 
third oats and a small quantity of chopped hay, all 
mixed together and dampened with water. They 
do well on this mixture and relish it. At night, 
have the same as at noon. After the horse has 
finished his grain ration, he should be given a small 
ration of mixed hay, timothy and clover. The 
same rule applies to feeding hay as grain, namely, 
a horse should not be given more than he eats up 
clean. 

Groom Daily — It must not be forgotten that a 
horse must be well groomed each day, that is, well 
brushed and rubbed, in order to keep him in good 
condition. It puts a finish and gloss on his coat, 
gives him a fresh appearance and makes him more 
choice in every wav. The tail and mane should 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF HORSES 6l 

have every care, for they add greatly to the ap- 
pearance of a fine horse. The stallion should al- 
ways be kept shod and the shoes should be reset 
at frequent and regular intervals. This is espe- 
cially true with heavy draft stallions, otherwise the 
feet are in danger of being broken when the horse 
is exercised or worked. 

Never Slight Exercise — Exercise should be 
given a horse moderately. Under all circum- 
stances he should have a large box stall, wherein 
he will have freedom to move around, and he 
should be exercised out in the open air a half hour 
each day. To walk out in the open air a half 
hour each day is sufficient to keep a stallion in per- 
fect health. Where a large number of stallions are 
kept in one place, it is necessary to avoid excite- 
ment as much as possible. Kind treatment and 
quietness go together. A horse that is treated 
kindly will always walk up and take his feed and is 
never in fear of the man who cares for and feeds 
him. Horses that are treated in a kindly, quiet 
manner are always much easier handled. They 
grow and thrive much better. 

BREAKING THE COLT ON THE FARM 

The first step in training a colt is to make 
friends with it. Gain its confidence by dividing 
your apple with it, petting it and currying it. A 
colt is practically half broken when you catch it 
anywhere. This is brought about gradually in the 
ways stated above, or by giving a little choice feed 
or some salt. Do not permit any abuse or teasing, 
as such treatment is often responsible for a great 
many of the vicious horses. Slip on the halter, or 
preferably the bridle, and, with the assistance of a 



62 FARM STOCK 

driver, lead it about. Repeat this frequently. Dis- 
pense with the driver as soon as possible. 

How to Halter-Break — A very good way to hal- 
ter-break a colt is alongside a horse. The rider 
then acts both as a leader and driver. Some tie 
the colt to the harness of the work horse or trot- 
ter. This is a good way, as it not only teaches it 
to lead ; it teaches also its place. Put on the harness 
very gently and let the colt get used to it. Then 
drive it, using two short lines. 

WINTER CARE OF FARM HORSES 

The feed and care of farm horses during the 
winter months should be governed somewhat by 
the condition of the animals and the amount of 
work and exercise they are getting. Under no 
conditions is it advisable to cut off the grain ration 
entirely or turn the animals out to a straw stack 
to get a scant living as best they can, or in other 
words barely to exist until springtime and hard 
work comes again. Individual horses require dif- 
ferent feeds and in varying quantities during the 
winter months. Some animals when not at work 
will winter nicely on silage as a principal feed with 
some hay, but I prefer to add some bran and 
ground oats to the ration. I would not advise the 
feeding of silage to any horse that is being worked 
or driven, or one that is at all subject to colic. A 
horse that goes in the winter in fair flesh should 
be fed a moderate amount of hay twice a day. 
Many farmers feed too much hay. What a horse 
will eat in an hour is a great plenty. This eating 
period will include also enough bran and middlings 
or ground oats to keep him in good condition. 

Salt Always Wanted — A little salt once a week, 
or better, if you can get it, a good sized lump of 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF HORSES 63 

rock salt in the manger all the time. Occasionally 
a hot bran mash with a little oil meal added is a 
good thing. Heavy or excessive feeding is not 
necessary if the horse is in fair condition. 

PREPARING TEAMS FOR WORK 

Horses just taken up after a long rest do not 
need much grain at first, but the quantity should 
be increased, little by little, as the time advances 
and amount of labor increases. You should re- 
member that the system is not in a condition to 
digest and assimilate much food at first, but that 
the capabilities will increase gradually as the sys- 
tem requires, to maintain it under the increased 
effort required to perform the extra amount of 
labor. Increase in capabilities in feeding and capa- 
bilities for labor can be developed slowly at the 
same time, under judicious management; but a 
horse that has been idle for any great length of 
time cannot be transformed suddenly from the soft, 
flabby condition to a hardened condition capable of 
sustained effort and endurance. 

Know the Team — The man who really has a love 
for his horses and seeks to give them a chance to 
perform their part without injury to themselves, 
as well as in a manner that will be a profit to him- 
self, will study their needs under varying condi- 
tions, as well as the character of each individual 
horse so as to be able to meet the different require- 
ments as they present themselves. Such a man is 
alert, never allowing the harness to gall for lack of 
proper adjustment. He will not worry one horse 
or put him to a disadvantage beside the other. It 
is too often the case that the owner and driver of 



6 4 



FARM STOCK 



the horses need educating and training first. When 
failures and losses are met with, many find the man 
behind the team responsible. 



THE MARE AND HER FOAL 

Until the foal is a month old, it ought not to get 
wet nor have a damp bed. After that time, if well 





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HACKNEY MARE AND FOAL 

The colt here is sired by a thoroughbred. It is to be used 
as a roadster by a Maryland farmer. 

cared for from the first, it can stand as much ex- 
posure, if well, as the dam should be allowed to be 
put in. 

If the mother is put to work, it is much better to 
leave the colt at the barn from morning until noon„ 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF HORSES 65 

cooling the mare if warm before allowing the foal 
to suck. The annoyance of having the colt follow- 
ing the dam will be avoided and it really is much 
safer in a stall by itself. The mother is more quiet 
than if her young is following and getting around 
other stock and running the risk of entanglement 
with machinery and harness. If the foal has a stall 
of its own and is with the dam only at nursing 
time, the process of weaning is much easier. As 
the feed is increased and the time approaches the 
hours without milk can be made to include the en- 
tire day. When entire separation takes place the 
tantrums are avoided. 

At all times when the dam is not worked, the 
foal should be allowed to run with her in a pad- 
dock away from other stock. Grass is an ideal 
feed supplemented with oats for the first few 
months. If the mother and colt are kept from 
fright and excitement and accustomed to the 
groom, the breaking of the colt to harness will be 
a comparatively small job. Halter breaking should 
be done while the colt follows the dam. This is 
quite another process when cows and other horses 
run in the same pasture and the mother is in a 
panic of fear lest the foal be hurt, and perhaps the 
dogs join in a barnyard melee now and then. The 
colt then may be as hard to manage as the mus- 
tang, who finds an enemy in every man. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

The Diseases of the Horse 

Health is the prime requisite in the successful 
management of live stock. A herd or flock more 
or less indisposed or sick is a rather sure indication 
that either the stock itself is not of a healthy strain 
or else that the conditions under which the animals 
are cared for, managed and fed, are not right. 
Some really good farmers are frequently troubled 
with disease in their stock, but the great majority 
of the best live-stock men have the least trouble of 
all. This is due for one reason to the fact that the 
stock owner has qualified himself to take proper 
care of the animals he possesses. He has learned 
how to feed, care for and manage, and, therefore, 
he is little concerned with treatment and medicine. 
In fact, the secret of successful treatment of dis- 
eases is to begin that treatment before the disease 
has taken hold. That means "prevention is better 
than cure." Have good ventilation in the stables, 
thorough sanitary conditions in all of the quarters, 
well-balanced food, so that all requisites of nu- 
trition may be secured, with plenty of salt and 
water, and the common ailments will not come to 
your herds or flocks. 

RECOGNIZING AND DISTINGUISHING 
DISEASES 

To become expert in recognizing disease you 
must study carefully the horse in health. This 
means that the practice of feeling the pulse and 



DISEASES OF THE HORSE 6 1 / 

heart, listening to the sounds of the lungs in breath- 
ing, feeling the skin, and generally observing the 
features will come in good use when the animal is 
sick. Become acquainted with the healthy and the 
sickly eye, tongue and posture ; and fix in your mind 
the nature of the appetite and the discharge of the 
bowels and bladder. 

Pulse— -In the full-grown horse, it beats 40 per 
minute; in the ox, from 50 to 55; in the sheep and 
pig, as man, from 70 to 80. 

You can always find the pulse where an artery 
passes over a bone. The usual place it is sought in 
the horse is on the cord that runs across the bone 
of the lower jaw, just in front of the curved por- 
tion; in cattle it is conveniently found over the 
middle of the first rib, or beneath the tail. 

In the horse the pulse is full and tense ; in the ox, 
soft and rolling. Any variation is a sign of dis- 
order. Fever is indicated by the pulse being rapid, 
small and weak for the low kind; and if fever is 
high it is rapid, full and hard. If very slow, you 
can expect brain disorder; and if fast, then slow 
and irregular, some trouble with the heart. 

Breathing — The air passes through the windpipe 
with a regular, steady sound. Observe this by 
placing the ear near the throat. When any varia- 
tion is observed you may know that all is not right. 
The rapidity with which breathing is performed in- 
dicates health or disease. Normal breathing in the 
horse varies from eight to 12 times a minute and in 
the cow a little faster. Any great increase may be 
taken as an indication of trouble. 

Body Heat — Any deviation from 98 degrees is 
a certain sign of disease. When the thermometer 
rises above 104 degrees there is great danger. Each 
disease has its own temperature. 



68 FARM STOCK 

Skin and Hair — The normal skin is soft, mel- 
low and pliable. If harsh and dry, it is abnormal. 
"Hide-bound" is a symptom of general disorder, 
due to poor nutrition, indigestion, worms or lack 
of exercise. When the skin becomes covered with 
a cold sweat, the life of the animal is in great 
danger. 

How the Animal Appears — To lie constantly on 
one side or to assume one position indicates that 
the animal is in pain in the other. By acquainting 
yourself with the different postures, you can often 
quickly arrive at the trouble. 

SOME COMMON DISEASES 

Of all domesticated animals, the horse is the one 
whose diseases have received the closest study. One 
reason for this has been that the horse is the most 
valuable of farm animals. Some specimens of 
horse flesh are very valuable indeed, commanding 
wonderful prices in the markets of the world. It 
follows that where such conditions as this prevail, 
the closest attention will be given to that animal's 
diseases and their treatment. A few of the com- 
mon diseases only will be mentioned here. 

Cerebrospinal Meningitis — This is a congestion 
that soon passes into inflammation of the brain and 
the spinal cord, accompanied by paralysis. The 
cause of this disease is believed to be improper food; 
food that is moldy, like moldy clover hay, al- 
falfa, grain stover, are always connected with this 
trouble. In its severe form the horse is attacked 
suddenly with inability to swallow and with spasms 
that frequently follow one another. The respira- 
tion is bad and the horse tends to move around in a 
circle. When the temperature rises to 103 to 104 



DISEASES OF THE HORSE OQ. 

degrees, death is imminent. In treating, it is best to 
call in a trained veterinarian. 

Tetanus or Lockjazv — This is a germ disease 
that develops from a wound in the legs or feet, 
often in itself of a trifling character; the pene- 
tration of a small nail more frequently being the 
cause than all others combined. Tetanus is simply 
a long continued spasm of the muscles which con- 
tract rigidly, often keeping the jaws firmly closed 
or locked. 

The first indication of this trouble is the stiff- 
ness of the muscles near the injury. The animal 
will move his limbs with difficulty. In a day or 
two the stiffness will be increased until it extends 
over the body. The champing of jaws and grind- 
ing of teeth will soon be noticed. Froth will show 
itself also on the lips, breathing becomes more 
rapid, the pulse quickens and the muscles dilate. 
Veterinarians always look for the unfailing sign 
of winking membrane of the eye and the protrusion 
of the haul together with a closing of the jaws. 
The best advice and treatment is to call a veteri- 
narian. 

Pneumonia — This is the inflammation of the 
lungs followed by the secretion of lymph which fills 
them up and solidifies them, later leading to death 
by suffocation or else to the gradual absorption and 
recovery. 

The common cause of this disease is any sudden 
change in temperature, weakened condition of the 
body effected by getting chilled or wet, thereby 
giving the germ an opportunity to fix itself and 
develop rapidly. In other words, the cause is quite 
similar to what it is in the case of man. One of 
the early symptoms is the rapid increase of the 



7° FARM STOCK 

pulse, going up to 70 to 80 beats a minute; tem- 
perature rises to 103 or 104 and above. The ani- 
mal appears cold; there is a dull, dry cough and a 
coldness about the legs and ears; sometimes a 
blood-stained mucus is discharged from the nose. 

In treating the disease, put the animal in a warm 
place where there is plenty of fresh air and where 
it is not cold. Wrapping the body with cloths is 
also a good idea. Keep the bowels loose and open ; 
feed cooling and nutritious and laxative, like bran 
and linseed meal; and then you had better call a 
veterinarian also. 

Heaves — This is a chronic disease that affects 
the breathing organs. There is no inflammation 
at all. The peculiar breathing, especially if the 
horse is given active exercise, will tell you at once 
the nature of the trouble. 

The immediate cause of heaves is the breaking 
of the cells in the lungs, consequently air is expelled 
only with extra effort, giving the two distinct noises 
by the effort. Animals that are , unthrifty and 
generally not in good health are thus more predis- 
posed to this trouble. There is no cure for the 
malady. You can help the animal by feeding only 
light, nutritious food in moderate quantities, by 
keeping the bowels regular and open. If the trouble 
is just noticed as beginning, it is wise to turn to 
pasture on green, short grass. 

Indigestion — There are all sorts of causes of in- 
digestion, but, of course, that most common is the 
improper use of food; overeating or the use of 
undesirable materials naturally ' causes trouble. 
Young horses passing through the stage of teeth- 
ing often get indigestion. Another cause is allow- 
ing the colt to suckle while the dam is hot and 
exhausted. 



DISEASES OF THE HORSE Jl 

Indigestion is indicated by pawing of the fore* 
feet, pains in the stomach, belching of wind and 
often a fullness in the abdomen. 

In treating ordinary cases, to change the food so 
that some easily digested product can be taken into 
the body, giving the least possible amount, is a very 
satisfactory proceeding. It will be well to give the 
animal some sort of a tonic that can be obtained 
from your druggist or veterinarian. 

Colic — One of the most common troubles of the 
horse is colic. This is nothing more than a spas- 
modic contraction of the muscular coats of the in- 
testines; quite sudden severe pains spring up and 
oftentimes they run into inflammation. Improper 
food is the common cause ; overworking, with sud- 
den filling of the stomach with water or food, fre- 
quently brings on colic. Sudden change of diet, 
the animal greedily eating the changed food, and 
such other little incidents are often the cause of in- 
digestion. You will always notice that pains ac- 
companied by pawing, kicking at the abdomen, 
lying- down, rolling, getting up again, lying down 
and stretching out, then quickly rising again, shak- 
ing of the body, etc., are certain indications of this 
trouble. 

About the safest and wisest treatment of colic is 
to give some opiate to relieve the pain and then 
to secure a free action of the bowels by using some 
purgative, one not too violent in its action. A half 
to one ounce of laudanum in warm water will 
quickly allay the pain, and then follow this witli 
some purgative. 

An old reliable formula is to use one ounce each 
of choloroform, laudanum and sulphuric ether with 
eight ounces of linseed oil, giving all at one dose. 
Many colic preparations are now on the market that 



J2 FARM STOCK 

can be readily purchased and are reliable and good 
and ought to be in every stable where horses are 
kept. 

Constipation — This common trouble is caused 
by feeding heavily of grain and dry feeds 
with lack of exercise. When it becomes more or 
less acute, colicky pains are noticed, the skin be- 
comes hide-bound and various indications of indi- 
gestion appear. The animal does not look well or 
thrive and it lacks spirit. The simple use of pur- 
gatives that are strong will not cure the trouble — 
it is more deeply seated than that. The best way 
to do is to change the feed, using such materials as 
are naturally laxative, like bran and linseed-oil 
meal. Then there is nothing better than good, 
fresh pasture grass ; in the winter time carrots, 
which are liked by horses, will be worth more than 
any sort of medicine to relieve the difficulty and 
to put the animal well on its feet again. 

Worms — The horse often is troubled with worms, 
which may arise from various sources. The symp- 
toms are not always distinctly pronounced, but if 
the coat is rough,- appetite peculiar, constant rub- 
bing by the animal of the hind quarters, and general 
run-down condition, you may be reasonably certain 
that worms are behind the trouble. 

Feeding sulphur, linseed oil, a little carbolic acid, 
oil of turpentine, are all good in relieving the 
trouble. Better, however, secure some preparation 
from your druggist for this ailment or get some- 
thing from your local veterinarian. 

Glanders — This is a contagious and fatal dis- 
ease, due to poison in the system. There is a dis- 
charge from the nostrils and usually the animal 
loses in flesh and strength. The poison can be 
conveyed easily to man and for that reason the only 



DISEASES OF THE HORSE 



73 



thing to do is to slaughter the animal as soon as 
glanders have been diagnosed. 

Glanders is without doubt the most dreaded of 
all horse diseases and is always incurable. In most 




BAD CASE OF GLANDERS 

The farcy form is shown here. The animal has not 
long to live. Except for experimental purposes, every horse 
having- glanders should be killed as soon as the disease is 
discovered. 



states rigid laws are being enforced as to the elimi- 
nation of this dreaded disease. It is usually ex- 
tended by the change of horses from one stable to 



74 FARM STOCK 

another. If you suspect glanders, always call a 
reputable veterinarian. You cannot afford to have 
a glanders horse on your place, not only because 
all your other animals may become affected there- 
by, but your own health and that of your family 
are in danger. 

Here are just a few indications of acute chronic 
glanders : The pulse usually is feeble ; there is rapid 
breathing, together with poor appetitie. The eye is 
weak and watery and the under jaw swollen. The 
lining membrane of the nostril is usually swollen, 
with a reddish color showing frequent ragged ulcers 
here and there from which a bloody and watery 
discharge drops. Abcesses form about the face and 
neck and these on ripening give forth their pus. 
Do not attempt to cure the animal at all. 

Lameness — It is not always an easy matter to lo- 
cate the cause of lameness in a horse. It may be 
due to corns or splints, or ring bones, or spavin, or 
side bones or to some injury, as a cut or nail insert. 
Of course, a cut can easily be located and readily 
seen, but many a nail has pricked or even entered 
the under side of a horse's foot and has been de- 
tected only with difficulty. In examining for lame- 
ness, observe when the animal is at rest and in 
motion; the favored foot will point out in what 
member you are to seek for the trouble. 

A corn is due always to bad shoeing or to wear- 
ing a shoe for too long a time. Corns don't always 
cause lameness, but they cause suffering. When 
noted, have the shoe removed, and if the corn is 
festered, have an opening made to give vent to 
the pus. 

The deposits of bony matter above and below the 
coronet are known as ring bones. In heavy horses, 



DISEASES OF THE HORSE 75 

excessive work is usually the cause, although rheu- 
matism is sometimes back of it. Often the black- 
smith who shoes the animal can relieve the trouble 
by adjusting the shoe. 

Bone spavin is a bony growth on the inner and 
lower side of the hock. It is due to overwork or 
a hereditary predisposition to weakness there, due 
to bad conformation. Many treatments are sug- 
gested, such as blistering or firing. In the early 
stages of the trouble, have a veterinarian to treat 
the disease locally. 

Side bones are due to the change of the carti- 
lages of the forefeet into bony substance. They 
are more frequently found in draft horses and there 
is not much to do in the way of treating other than 
to remove the cartilages with a knife. This, how-: 
ever, has not proved very satisfactory. Get your 
veterinarian to examine; maybe he can relieve the 
difficulty 

THE BEST OF ALL TREATMENTS 

But the best treatment that you can give your 
horse is good care, proper feed, clean, fresh water, 
good sanitation, plenty of ventilation and never ex- 
cessive work unless the horse is used to it. There 
is in use an immense number of different methods 
and recipes for treating various kinds of diseases 
of the horse. Do not have anything to do with 
these. They are old-maidish, of little use and often 
impose great suffering. It is absurd and inhuman 
to treat horses in sickness in the way some of these 
old methods and recipes call for. Such methods 
ought to be prohibited by law. 



CHAPTER IX. 

The Mule 

The breeding of these animals goes away back 
into antiquity. It was forbidden among the Israel- 
ites by the laws of Moses, but in David's time they 
were certainly employing mules, probably im- 
ported. We know also that the Greeks and Ro- 
mans raised them. 

This hybrid is tall and is our strongest draft ani- 
mal for the farm. In appearance, more of the 
qualities of the horse are inherited than those of 
the ass. In height, in shape of neck, shoulders and 
body, the maternal form is inherited, while the 
head, the long ears, the tufted tail, the thin, wiry 
legs and the hoofs are the inheritance from the 
father. The coat largely resembles the horse, but 
the bray has a certain resemblance to the paternal 
noise. 

The most common character of the mule is his 
freedom from disease and his great vigor. When 
three years old, he is ready for work and will keep 
it up for two or three decades. I have known 
mules at 30 years of age to do their full day's 
labor with little fatigue and keep it up day after 
day in the hot summer months of North and 
South, without any observable bodily change. The 
animal may lose in weight, but not in grit. 

The mule, as is commonly known, is a hybrid be- 
tween the mare and the male ass or jack. The 
hybrid produced between the horse stallion and the 
female ass, or jennet, is known as a hinny. 

76 



THE MULE yy 

SELECTION OF A JACK 

In raising mules, the selection of the jack is an 
important matter. We may, therefore, proceed to 
describe the various breeds of jacks which may be 
used for the purpose. In general, the best grades 
of jacks of all breeds are used for raising jacks 
and are called jennet jacks, while the somewhat less 
valuable ones are bred to mares for the production 
of mules and are called mule jacks. In the follow- 
ing v account of jack breeds, Goodpasture's descrip- 
tions, as modified by Knight, Smith and Wilcox, 
are largely utilized. 

Andalusian — This breed comes from southern 
Spain, and was the first to be introduced into the 
United States. The King of Spain presented a 
jack and jennet of this breed to George Washing- 
ton in 1787. Later Henry Clay introduced them 
into Kentucky. It is an old breed. The color is 
gray, frequently white, and rarely black or blue. 
The Andalusians stand 14 to 15 hands high and 
have fine legs with large bone and comparatively 
free from jack sores. The head and ears are fairly 
satisfactory in conformation, but the breed is un- 
popular on account of its color. 

Maltese — This well-known breed came from the 
island of Malta, and the first to reach this country 
were given to General Washington by Lafayette. 
The Maltese is a small jack, seldom standing over 
14 hands high. The color is black or brown. The 
head is well formed, with pointed upright ears, but 
the legs are rather small for sires of mules. The 
Maltese is quite satisfactory for saddle or driving 
purposes, but is too small as a mule-getter for our 
farm conditions. 



7& FARM STOCK 

Catalonian — This is another Spanish breed of 
jack first introduced into the United States by 
Henry Clay. This is a good black, with white 
points, of fine style and action, and from 14^2 to 
15 hands, with a clean bone. The Catalonian is a 
popular jack on account of his desirable color, fine, 
short hair and unusual height. Rarely specimens 
of this breed are gray. In style and action the 
Catalonian is unsurpassed and he is, therefore, a 
desirable animal for crossing upon our native 
jennets. Some of the chief good points of our 
native jacks come from Catalonian crosses. Certain 
breeders claim that mules sired by Catalonian jacks 
mature earlier than those from other breeds. 

The Majorca Jack — The Majorca jack comes 
from the island of the same name. It is the lar- 
gest of all imported jacks, often standing 16 hands 
high, with the greatest weight and heaviest bone, 
head and ear of all jack breeds. No jennets of this 
breed have been imported into America. 

The Italian Jack — The Italian jack is common in 
Italy and has been imported in considerable numbers 
into this country. It is the smallest of im- 
ported breeds and the price is correspondingly 
low. The color is black, with an occasional gray, 
and the height 13 to 14 hands. The bone is large, 
but the Italian jack is too small for producing 
mules. It seems to be related to the Maltese. 
Occasionally they are quite vicious. 

The Poiton — The Poitou was the latest breed of 
jacks to be imported into this country. The Poitou 
jack has been greatly improved by systematic 
breeding, with the result that France leads Europe 
in quality and number of jacks and also of mules. 
According to Ayrault, the noted French authority 
on the subject, the head of this jack is large, the 



THE MULE 



79 



mouth small, and the ears with long, curly hair. 
The tail is short, with long hair only at the tip. The 
chest is broad, and all the joints are large. The 
mane is long and the hair generally fine and silky. 
The color is black or dark brown, rarely gray. The 
price is high, ranging from $1,000 to $3,200. They 
are in such great demand in France, Spain and 
elsewhere that the trade can scarcely be supplied. 
The requirements for entry into the Poitou stud 




MULES MAKE GOOD FARM WORKERS 

For hard work and warm work the mule is unexcelled, 
does his business well and never complains. 



He 



book are very strict. Mules from this jack, ac- 
cording to Allen, are unequaled, and sell for more 
than those from any other breed. Draft mares 
bred to this jack in the United States produce ex- 
cellent mules. 

The Native Jack — Notwithstanding the excel- 
lence of many imported jacks, especially the Poitou 
and the Catalonian, it is the opinion of experienced 
breeders like J. L. Jones, that "our native jacks 



SO FARM STOCK 

with good imported crosses behind them will sire 
the mules best suited to the wants of those who use 
them in this country, and will supply the market 
with what is wanted by the dealers." The native 
jack is of greater weight and larger bone than im- 
ported jacks, showing in this regard the effect of 
limestone soil and blue grass. He is a mixture of 
all breeds of imported jacks, and, therefore, shows 
all colors. Recently, however, breeders have select- 
ed them for black color with white points. Colts 
from native jacks are stronger, with better body 
and more length than those of imported jacks. 

BEST TIME FOR BREEDING 

In breeding jacks to jennets, the spring is the 
best season. Jack colts are weaned at six months 
of age. They are fed on oats, bran, hay and plenty 
of green forage or pasture. Both jennet and mule 
jacks may begin service at two years of age. The 
jack gets only about 50 per cent of mule colts from 
his service, but the percentage of colts from stal- 
lions is usually no higher. About 40 mule colts 
per season is good work for a jack. Most consider 
it best that mule jacks should not be allowed to 
associate with their own species, but only with the 
horse. During the season of service they should 
be fed a nitrogenous ration and should have the 
freedom of a good pasture. 

THE BURRO 

From the Rocky mountains to the Pacific coast 
a diminutive jack, known as the burro, is in com- 
mon use. The burro is the descendant of jacks 
brought by the Spanish settlers of that region, but 



THE MULE 8l 

it is not certain to what breed of jack it is most 
closely related. Its color varies from white to 
almost black, mouse color being very common. The 
size is about that of the Shetland pony. A peculiar 
feature frequently seen in the burro is its enor- 
mously thick neck. It is a slow, strong, patient 
and sure-footed animal, and is capable of carrying 
loads up to 250 pounds. It is, therefore, an excel- 
lent animal for mountain work. Burro mares 
crossed with the thoroughbred stallion produce 
hinnies of considerable speed,' good temper, great 
endurance and more style than the ordinary mule 
shows. The best of hinnies for mining are ob- 
tained by putting burro mares to small, blocky stal- 
lions. If it is desirable in such cases, artificial 
insemination may be practiced by means of the 
syringe or capsule. 

BEST TIME TO BREED MARES 

Before being served, mares should be hobbled or 
placed in pits or chutes. A suitable breeding chute 
may easily be constructed of plank, placed vertically 
and close enough together so that the jack's feet do 
not get caught. At the entrance to the chute, 
wings may be placed opening out at a slight angle. 
Poles passing through the chute in front and be- 
hind the mare, and also behind the forelegs and in 
front of hind legs just under the belly, will 
prevent any accident from kicking or squatting. 
Moreover, if several mares are ready for service 
at the same time, artificial insemination may be 
accomplished by means of the syringe or capsule 
method. The mare is returned to the jack on the 
eighteenth day after service. 

For farm work, a mule should stand 15 to 15.2 
hands high and weigh 1,050 to 1,100 pounds. Some 



82 FARM STOCK 

users of mules prefer a heavier animal — up to 1,300 
pounds. In order to get mules of this size, 
Percheron mares and a jack 15.2 hands high may 
be used. In all cases, both the mare and jack should 
be dark in color, for the market demands dark- 
colored mules. A mature jack is a more certain 
foal getter than a young one. While, therefore, 
jacks may be allowed to do service sparingly at two 
years of age, they should not be brought up to a 
maximum till the age of four or five years. Some 
breeders castrate male mules during the first sum- 
mer, while they are still with the mares, but, as a 
rule, it is better to wait till they are one year old. 
In general, the market prefers female to male 
mules. The females mature a little earlier and are 
plumper and more squarely built. Then, gnats and 
screw worm flies often irritate the sheath of the 
male. 

Warder recommends that mules be broken at 
two years of age, after which they are to be put at 
light work during the third year. It is believed 
that by this system they develop a quicker step than 
when broken after attaining full maturity and put 
at hard work immediately. The same methods are 
to be used in breaking mules as with horses. Abuse 
and barbarous treatment are quite uncalled for. 
"By kind treatment mules may be rendered the 
most docile and affectionate creatures among our 
domestic animals and will often show more intelli- 
gence than the horse." 



CHAPTER X. 
Cattle 

No domestic animal has in the past, or does now, 
contribute so much to man's welfare as the cow 
and her kind. She gives us milk, our most impor- 
tant food to drink; she supplies us with butter and 
cheese, both appetizing and nutritious and both im- 
portant products on our tables ; her flesh is daily 
used on all occasions for supplying our most popu- 
lar food ; from her back comes the hide to be made 
into leather that our feet may be kept covered, and 
that other necessities and luxuries may be provided 
us; and when she has ended her work and closed 
up her duties of life, her bones, blood and offal go 
back to our soils to maintain their freshness and 
fertility. 

The cow is a ruminant; she belongs to the great 
class of cud-chewing animals. Her past is shrouded 
in mystery and we only surmise what her early his- 
tory has been. When she was domesticated we do 
not know, but during all the years that she has been 
held captive by man, she has supplied him with 
food, performed many of his hard labors, and con- 
tributed to his comfort and welfare. 

Cattle Improvement a First Essential — The fact 
that it is not possible for every farmer to possess 
pure-bred cattle is no reason why he should not 
improve the stock he has. He can do this by 
securing pure-bred sires that possess the character- 
istics desired. Scrub stock can be quickly im- 
proved by the continuous use of good sires. It is 




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CATTLE 85 

never wise to use grade or cross-bred sires, since 
they do not possess stable characteristics. 

Moreover, it is possible for every farmer to de- 
termine exactly the producing power of his dairy 
cows. When cows are milked, the milk should be 
weighed and a record kept of it. If this is done, it 
will be found that some cows produce as much as 
1 000 gallons or more, while others produce 
not more than one-half or even one- fourth of that 
quantity. If a farmer will kill or sell his poor 
cows and keep his best ones, he will, in a short 
while, have a herd of only heavy milkers. 

Young calves that are not to be fattened should 
be fed only such food as will produce rapid, thrifty 
growth, so that they may be gotten in readiness for 
the market at as early an age as possible. Young 
dairy animals may be fed any food that insures 
thrifty growth, but foods of a coarse nature are 
particularly good, especially such kinds as clover, 
alfalfa and cowpea hay; pasture grasses, corn en- 
silage and roots, being succulent and juicy, are also 
excellent. 



CHAPTER XL 
Breeds of Cattle 

Shorthorns — We commence with this breed for 
the reason that, of all breeds of cattle, this is the 
most popular. Shorthorns are also commonly 
called Durhams, from the English county in which 
the breed originated. These animals were de- 
veloped by improving the Teeswater and Holder- 
ness cattle with slight admixtures of Dutch bulls 
and Galloways. Shorthorns had already been in- 
troduced into this country about 1790, and impor- 
tations have occurred with great frequency since 
18 1 5. Among prominent early breeders of Short- 
horns in this country, we have Lewis F. Allen and 
William Warfield 

At present, Shorthorns are found in every state 
and territory in the Union, and in every province 
of the Dominion of Canada. Their popularity is 
due largely to their fitness for the purpose for 
which they are raised ; or, in other words, is based 
on a solid business foundation. Shorthorns are 
capable of readily adapting themselves to. the dif- 
ferent conditions under which they are found. 
In regard to size and weight, they are somewhat 
superior to other beef breeds. They mature as 
early as other breeds, and may be brought to a 
proper market ripeness at the age of two and one- 
half years. They become fully mature and attain 
their complete size at the age of four years. 

The conditions under which they thrive best and 
yield the greatest profits are those which prevail 
in the central states, where good pastures are to be 



BREEDS OF CATTLE 



87 



obtained, and where suitable grains for fattening 
are abundant. Shorthorns are capable of making 
as good returns for their feed as any other breed. 
The meat is of good quality, the percentage of 
bone and offal is small, but the grain of meat is 
not quite so fine as is observed in other breeds. 

One of the strong points in favor of Shorthorns 
is their milk yield. In fact, the Shorthorn is often 




A TYPICAL SHORTHORN 

A representative of the beef type. Xote the square and deep 
sides. He is all beef and he knows it. 

referred to as a dual-purpose breed, yielding a 
good quality of beef, and at the same time giving 
a large quantity of milk. This quality has been 
considered of sufficient importance to perpetuate, 
and, as a result, we have a milking race of Short- 
horns. 




b&' 



BREEDS OF CATTLE 



89 



More attention has been given to milking Short- 
horns in England than in this country, and this 
fact is due, perhaps, to a tendency among our breed- 
ers to go into specialties. This requires that atten- 
tion be given to securing one line of good qualities 
without regard to other matters, such as milk pro- 
duction. On account of the large amount of milk 
which Shorthorns yield, they are well adapted to 
localities where a combination of dairying and 
beef production can be operated most profitably. 

Shorthorns are also of great value, like other 
pure beef breeds, in grading up native scrub cat- 
tle, so as to produce a good quality of grade ani- 
mals for beef. The chief weaknesses of Shorthorns 
are lack of constitution and relative sterility as 
observed in certain families, especially where care- 
less breeding or in-and-inbreeding have been 
practiced. 

The standard colors of the Shorthorns are red, 
white and roan, with red most in favor, and all 
shades of roan well liked; but white is somewhat 
in disfavor. The general form is large, compact 
and rectangular, with a smoothness of outline such 
as is required by the standard adopted for beef 
form. The body is long and deep, with parallel 
upper and lower lines and side lines. The head is 
relatively small and considerably narrower in the 
female than in the male. The horns are short, but 
longer and smaller in the female. 

Hereford — It is commonly considered that the 
Herefords are descended from some of the native 
cattle of Great Britain, and that they mixed, in 
their earlier history, with the Devon and the Sus- 
sex cow. Apparently all of these animals were at 
first nearly a solid red. A cross with white cat- 
tle gave a tendency to white markings, which has 



9° FARM STOCK 

persisted in the Hereforcls. In the early history 
of the breed, the face was not pure white as at 
present. This characteristic, however, has been 
definitely fixed by long continued breeding. 

The Here fords were well known and had estab- 
lished a considerable reputation for themselves in 
many herds as early as 1835. They did not gain 
popularity, however, as fast as the Shorthorns, 
partly for the reason that their milking powers 
were somewhat inferior. Then, too, there was con- 
siderable controversy regarding the purity of 
white- faced and mottled faced animals, so that 
their distribution was strongly checked. Appar- 
ently the first importation of Here fords into the 
United States was made by Henry Clay in 181 7. 

The Herefords gain rapidly, adapt themselves 
to all soil, climatic and feed conditions which pre- 
vail 'in the United States and do exceedingly well 
in the corn belt and the agricultural part of Can- 
ada. They are also particularly noted for their 
grazing ability on the range. The average size of 
the Hereford is slightly under that of the Short- 
horn, but they mature as early, being ready for 
beef at two and one-half years. In fact, recently, 
claim has been made that Herefords mature earlier 
than any other beef breed. The quality of the meat 
is good and the dressed weight satisfactory. In 
crossing the Herefords with other breeds, the best 
results have been obtained with Shorthorns and 
Galloways. 

The face, throat, chest, lower part of the body, 
legs and tip of the tail are white, all other parts 
being red. The red should neither be too dark nor 
too light. The skin is slightly thicker than that 
of the Shorthorn, but the form of the body is es- 
sentially the same. The horns are longer and 



BREEDS OF CATTLE 91 

more spreading, the position in which they are 
carried being a characteristic of the breed. 

Aberdeen Angus — This breed is variously known 
as Polled Angus, Polled Aberdeen, or Aberdeen 
Angus. In the early history of Scotland there 
seems to have been a number of polled cattle 
referred to a^s Angus Doddies, Buchans or Aber- 
deen Humlies. In Scotland, the approved color is 
black, but occasionally some white markings 
appear; such animals, however, are not used for 
breeding purposes. In Scotland the Angus is 
considered as having a finer bone, softer and silkier 
hair and shorter legs than the Galloway. It has 
long occupied in that country a conspicuous place 
in the fat stock and beef markets, on account of its 
excellent meat. The chief difference between the 
Angus and Galloway is in the thicker skin and 
larger and more shaggy hair of the Galloway. 

The Angus was first imported into the United 
States in 1873. The breed met with some preju- 
dice, on account of the fact that the field was al- 
ready occupied by Shorthorns and Herefords. It 
was necessary, therefore, for the champions of the 
Polled Angus to demonstrate the good points 
claimed for the Angus before this breed acquired 
any decided popularity. The Angus is, perhaps, 
best adapted to localities where moderate tempera- 
tures prevail and where comfortable quarters may 
be furnished for the winter. With regard to the 
value of the Angus on the western ranges, con- 
siderable difference of opinion prevails, and the 
statement has been frequently made that these cat- 
tle are too lazy to make a success under range con- 
ditions. It is impossible to give an authoritative 
opinion on this subject, since so much prejudice 
prevails in the matter; in fact, the champions of 



9 2 



FARM STOCK 



almost every breed claim that their particular breed 
is superior to all others as a rustler on the range. 
It is sufficient to say that many cattle raisers, 
throughout the range, from the northern to the 
southern boundary of the United States, have re- 
ported excellent results from the use of pure-bred 




AN ABERDEEN ANGUS HEIFER 

The strong lines and beef form stand out conspicuously. 
Even the novice knows this individual likes to make meat. 



and grade Angus on the range, and have found 
that Angus bulls are as capable of getting vigor- 
ous calves under range conditions as any other 
breed of bulls. 

In size, the Angus is perhaps slightly inferior 
to the Shorthorn and Hereford, but on account of 
its short legs, it weighs more than its apparent size 
would indicate. The breeders in this country have 



BREEDS OF CATTLE 93 

given much attention to the early maturing quali- 
ties of the Angus, with the result that this breed 
now matures as early as any other. In the eco- 
nomic use of food, the Angus is second to no 
other breed. The form is almost always symmetri- 
cal, and not patchy. In fact, the hair is so short 
that any irregularity of form would be apparent. 
During recent years, the Angus has carried away 
its share of prizes at fat stock shows, and in block 
contests. The quality of meat is usually recognized 
as superior to that of the Shorthorns and Here- 
fords, and nearly or quite equal to that of the West 
Highland and Galloway cattle. 

Galloway — This breed of cattle also comes from 
Scotland, and has occasionally been called Polled 
Scots. In Scotland the color is black with a 
brownish tinge. The head is short and wide, with 
a broad forehead and wide nostrils. The body 
must be deep, rounded and symmetrical, the skin 
mellow and thick, the hair soft, wavy, with a mossy 
undercoat; and wiry or curly hair is very objection- 
able. The Galloways are so called on account of 
their apparent origin in the province of Galloway 
and the breed is one of the oldest and purest of 
the beef type. 

Biggar has justly called attention to the fact 
that Galloway cattle have qualities which- particu- 
larly fit them for western ranges. In the first place, 
they are possessed of unusual hardness, whereby 
they are able to endure a severe climate. Absence 
of horns is also a desirable quality, and in type 
they are very uniform. Finally, they possess the 
power of transmitting their good qualities to their 
offspring in a marked degree. A Galloway bull 
of good breeding will transmit a black color to 90 
per cent of his calves, and the hornless condition 



94 FARM STOCK 

to from 95 to ioo per cent without regard to the 
breed of the mother. 

While at present the Galloways are, perhaps, not 
so popular as either the Shorthorns, Herefords 
or Angus, they are at least entitled to the fourth 
place among the beef breeds, as pointed out by 
Shaw, and they are rapidly gaining in popularity. 
They are the hardiest of all beef breeds except the 




A PAIR OF GALLOWAYS 

The Galloways are rugged, hardy and can stand much 
exposure. They have been much appreciated in improving 
the range cattle of the West. 

West Highland cattle; their size is somewhat 
smaller than that of the breeds already considered, 
but their grazing qualities are of an exceedingly 
high order. They do not mature quite so early as 
the Shorthorns, Herefords or Angus, but they take 
on flesh smoothly and the meat has long been 
noted for its excellent quality; in fact, in this re- 
spect, they perhaps excel even the Angus. The 



BREEDS OF CATTLE 95 

Galloways are excellent breeders and show an ex- 
tremely small percentage of sterility. The only 
serious objection which can be raised against them 
is their small milk yield. One of the peculiarly val- 
uable points of the Galloway, is their hide, which, 
when tanned, may be used for robes and fur coats. 
According to the most recent scale of points for the 
Galloway, this breed must be pure black, with a 
brownish tinge ; white markings on the feet, ankles, 
legs or any part of the body above the under line 
are very objectionable. 

West Highland Cattle — West Highland cattle, 
also known simply as Highland cattle, came orig- 
inally from the western part of Scotland. The 
horns are large, sharp-pointed and upturned. The 
color is generally black, brindle or dun. The hide, 
as compared with the Angus and Galloways, is 
thick and covered with long, soft hair, considerably 
longer than that of the Galloways. There are sev- 
eral distinct varieties of West Highland cattle, the 
principal of which are the Kyloes, North High- 
landers, and the West Highlanders. In Scotland, 
this breed is not considered of much value for its 
milk, and, therefore, the calves are usually allowed 
to suck the cows. In hardiness, however, it is 
superior to all other breeds, and is, therefore, best 
adapted to severe climates like those of Alaska and 
northwest Canada, and some of the colder parts 
of the Rocky mountain ranges. The West High- 
land cattle are capable of not only enduring the 
cold^ but also damp weather, and can find a living 
for themselves on either grass or brush. They 
mature rather slowly, and the quantity of the milk 
is very small. The meat, however, is considered 
especially excellent, and in the English markets 
commands the very highest price. 



96 FARM STOCK 

The color may vary considerably, black being 
very common, with a tendency at present toward a 
yellow or light dun ; brindle or red and black colors 
are also allowed. The form is that of the typical 
beef type, only smaller, and the body in proportion 
to its size is strong, deep, thick and exceedingly 
compact. 

Red Polled Cattle — Red Polled cattle are com- 
monly classified among the dual-purpose breeds and 
are sometimes called the Norfolk Polled breed or 
Norfolk Red Polls. According to the English 
standard, the color must be red, while the tip of 
the tail and under may be white. The head must 
be decidedly that of the beef type and absolutely 
hornless. The Red Polls are apparently the out- 
come of mixing both Suffolk and Norfolk Polled 
cattle. Improvement has been brought about by 
careful selection and good feeding. They were 
first imported into the United States in 1873. 
They stand between the Shorthorns and Devons in 
size, are excellent milkers, mature early and are 
noted for transforming their feed into milk during 
the period of lactation and into beef as soon as 
they are dry. 

Devon Cattle — This breed of cattle is one of the 
oldest and purest breeds of dual-purpose cattle 
which originated in Great Britain. In their early 
history, they were closely connected with the Here- 
ford and Sussex cattle. The breed is found in its 
purest and best form in North Devon. The Eng- 
lish standard for the Devon requires a small, clean' 
head, with deerlike expression; thin, fine horns of 
a cream color, tipped with black, growing with a 
regular curve upward. The skin is somewhat 
loose and covered with hair of a soft, furry nature, 
inclined to curl whenever the animal is in good 



BREEDS, OF CATTLE 97 

condition and full coat. The North Devon race 
of this breed is highly esteemed for beef and for 
draft purposes, but less for the dairy. Their milk 
has a high fat content, but the quantity is rather 
small. 

Devons were first introduced into the United 
States in 1817, after which importations took place 
with considerable rapidity. This breed is now 
found in nearly every state in the Union, but is 
more numerous in Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, 
Massachusetts and Wisconsin. Devons are not 
particularly popular in most parts of this country 
for dual-purpose cattle, for the reason that they 
are somewhat deficient in size for beef, and the milk 
yield is small. They are active grazers and the 
fat content of the milk is very high. They do not 
mature quite so early as the standard beef breeds. 
In crossing and grading up scrub stock, they are 
quite valuable. The bulls are able to transmit 
their rich, red color to a large percentage of off- 
spring. ' 

Polled Durham — Polled Durham originated in 
Ohio, from two sources; viz., a cross between 
Shorthorn bulls and muley cows and pure hornless 
Shorthorns, which occasionally are seen as freaks 
in this breed. The Polled Durhams are becoming 
popular throughout the United States and have 
been exported to some extent abroad, where they 
are also making a name for themselves. They are 
most numerous in Indiana, Illinois, Ohio, Texas 
and other central states. They were first exported 
to the Argentine Republic in 1894. The appear- 
ance and points of the Polled Durhams are essen- 
tially the same as those of Shorthorns, but more 
attention has been given to milking qualities, so 



go ' FARM STOCK 

that this breed probably excels even the milking 
Shorthorns in the quantity of milk. 

Brown Swiss Cattle — Brown Swiss cattle are 
one of the standard breeds from Switzerland, and 
have become generally distributed throughout Eu- 
rope. They were first imported into the United 
States in 1869 by Mr Henry M. Clark of Belmont, 
Massachusetts, since which time many importations 
have been made. Brown Swiss cattle are well 
adapted to conditions where a combination of 
dairying and beef product is sought. The size is 
medium; cows weigh from 1,200 to 1,300 pounds. 
The quantity of milk is moderately large, and its 
fat content good. The Brown Swiss cattle are ex- 
cellent grazers, fatten readily when dry and the 
calves develop rapidly. They are fertile and ex- 
cellent breeders. According to the American stand- 
ard, the color is dark brown to light brown, or at 
some seasons of the year gray. A few splashes of 
white near the udder are not objectionable and a 
light stripe is allowed along the back. The hair 
between the horns is light, but not reddish. The 
horns are rather short, flattish and with black tips. 

Jersey — In point of numbers, the Jerseys are 
considerably in the lead of other dairy breeds in 
the United States. This breed originated in the 
Island of Jersey and has gradually spread through- 
out the dairy regions of Europe and America. A 
small number of Jerseys, then known as Alder- 
neys, were introduced into the United States before 
1840, but large importations did not take place 
until after 1850. 

Jerseys are the smallest in size of all the noted 
dairy breeds, the cows ranging in weight from 700 
to 1,000 pounds, and the bulls from 1,200 to 1,800 
pounds. A deliberate attempt has been made to 



BREEDS OF CATTLE 



99 



increase the size of the Jerseys, so that in the 
United States they are somewhat larger than in 
their native island. The color of the Jerseys varies 
extremely, showing all shades of brown, even to 




A GREAT JERSEY COW 

Adelaide of St. Lambert is a typical specimen of her 
race. The fine head, thick neck, large udder and prominent 
milk veins are all indicative of dairy quality and tempera- 
ment. In addition to this, the fine skin, silken hair and neat 
bone are all qualities of superior breeding. 



black, and various shades of yellow, fawn, tan and 
cream; mouse color, light red and brindle are also 
observed. The head of the Jersey is small and 
usually dished, and the muzzle, including the upper 
lip, shows a black or dark red color. This at once 



100 FARM STOCK 

distinguishes the Jersey from the Guernsey, which 
has a tendency to show a buff color about the head. 

Many breeders prefer solid colors in Jerseys. 
The majority of this breed are variously marked. 
The udder is of good size and ordinarily hangs 
lower than in Ayrshires, while the milk veins are 
well developed. Jerseys are likely to be irregular 
and angular in outline, rather quick and graceful 
in movement and deerlike in appearance. They 
are nervous and excitable, but when carefully 
treated, are docile and easily managed. The mat- 
ter of temperament in all dairy cows may be said 
to be largely a question of breeding and treatment. 

Much effort has been made in America to in- 
crease the milk yield of Jerseys while maintaining 
its high fat content. Jersey cows frequently give 
three to four gallons a day, and many Jerseys pro- 
duce 300 pounds or more of butter annually. A 
few animals under careful test have yielded from 
9,000 to nearly 17,000 pounds of milk in a year. 
The amount of fat in the milk is usually from 4 
to 5 per cent, and sometimes higher. 

Guernsey — This breed originated in another of 
the Channel islands, known as the Island of Guern- 
sey, and has practically the same origin and his- 
tory as the Jersey. In the development of the 
Guernseys, however, more of the original character- 
istics of the parent stock from Normandy have 
been preserved. At present, however, the Guern- 
seys closely resemble the Jerseys in their general 
conformation and appearance. 

The Guernseys were first introduced into the 
United States, in numbers, in about 1850, being 
grouped together with the Jerseys at that time 
under the name of Alderneys. Between 1870 and 
1875 the Guernsey was recognized as a distinct 



BREEDS OF CATTLE 



IOI 



breed in this country. The head of the Guernsey 
is long, the neck slender, the body large and deep 
and the flanks thin. The color is light yellow and 
orange or buff predominating, with considerable 
white in patches on the body and legs. Dark colors 
approaching brown are seen on some cows and 




QUEEN OF THE BARNYARD 

This Guernsey cow shows the dairy type very conspicuously. 
No one questions her rank. 



more frequently on the bulls. The muzzle is almost 
buff or flesh color. The horns are small, curved 
and waxy, often showing a rich yellow at the base. 
One of the distinguishing characteristics of the 
Guernsey is the large secretion of yellow coloring 
matter throughout the skin, but especially where 
the hair is white around the ears, eyes and udder. 



102 FARM STOCK 

The udder and teats are well shaped. While the 
Guernsey is of nervous temperament, the cows are 
gentle under proper management, and the bulls 
are probably less likely to become vicious than Jer- 
sey bulls. 

The Guernseys are economic feeders and excel- 
lent butter producers, the milk often showing from 
5 to 6 per cent of fat. They are especially recom- 
mended by Alvord and others for butter cows and 
for the production of market milk, where quality 
secures a high price. They show great power of 
assimilating feed and converting it into milk, but 
do not endure excessive forcing. Guernsey cows 
average about 1,000 pounds or a little more in 
weight, and being slightly larger than the jerseys, 
may be expected to give more milk than the latter. 
On the farm a good Guernsey may be expected to 
produce 5,000 pounds of 'milk, or 300 pounds of 
butter, without high feeding. In one case a herd 
of 104 cows averaged 318 pounds of butter each 
a year. Recently a Guernsey cow in Wisconsin 
made a new world's butter record of 1,000 pounds 
a year, under a carefully supervised test. 

Ayrshire — This breed of dairy cows originated 
in the county of Ayrshire, in the southwestern part 
of Scotland, and was brought to its present fixed 
form by careful breeding in that country. 

Ayrshires were first brought to New York in 
1822, and began to be imported in considerable 
numbers about the middle of the nineteenth cen- 
tury. With the exception of the Kerry cow, no 
other breed of dairy cattle can excel the Ayrshire in 
obtaining a subsistence and thriving well on scant 
pasture and upon the coarsest of forage. "The 
natural hardihood of constitution renders these cat- 
tle admirably adapted to grazing on broken and 



BREEDS OF CATTLE IO3 

rugged pastures and in sterner weather than would 
be conducive to the well-being of cows of some 
other breed." The purpose of breeding in the Ayr- 
shire has been to secure an animal which will give 
a large milk yield without extravagance of feed- 
ing, but this breed, while showing the greatest 
economy in the utilization of feed, responds 
promptly to liberal feeding. 

The Ayrshire cow weighs from 900 to 1,100 
pounds, and the bull from 1,400 to 1,800 pounds. 
They are short of leg, with small bone and active 
movement. The general form is good, without 
any weakness in the forequarters, but with an un- 
usually strong development of the hindquarters. 
They do not carry any extra flesh during the period 
of lactation. The face is in most cases long and 
straight, and the horns curve outward, then in- 
ward and up, with the tips inclined backward. The 
muzzle is usually black, although white is permis- 
sible. The prevailing color is red and white in 
spots, not mixed, with a tendency at present toward 
more white. The red is bright and is frequently 
compared to that of the shell of a horse-chestnut. 
The udder of the Ayrshire is somewhat character- 
istic, being flattened from side to side and extend- 
ing far forward and backward. The teats are 
small and tend rather to a cylindrical than a conical 
form. The Ayrshire is nervous and the cows some- 
times show a tendency to be quarrelsome, but the 
bulls are not particularly vicious. 

In good hands, a herd of Ayrshires should aver- 
age 5,500 pounds of milk a head annually. In 
sortie noted herds, the average yield has reached 
nearly 7,000 pounds, and many cows have given 
from 10,000 to 12,000 pounds a year. The milk 
fat averages about 4 per cent, and the amount 




3 



3 -^ 



ft to 






fl o 



O 73 



SB 



104 



BREEDS OF CATTLE 105 

of Gutter in good herds should run from 300 to 320 
pounds each a year. The milk of the Ayrshire is 
not especially rich in fat, but is above the aver- 
age of all dairy cows. 

With regard to distribution of the breeds thus 
far considered, Jerseys are found in all parts of the 
United States, but are kept most numerously in 
the eastern and middle states and less extensively 
in the West and South. The Guernseys, likewise, 
are most extensively maintained in New England, 
New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey and Wiscon- 
sin, while the Ayrshires are most numerous in New 
York, Massachusetts, Vermont and New Hamp- 
shire, and less frequently observed in the central 
states and west of the Mississippi. 

Hoist ein — The black and white cattle of Hol- 
land, or the Holsteins, are one of the very oldest 
of dairy breeds. According to some of the cham- 
pions of the Holsteins, this breed can be traced 
back for 2,000 years in the territory where it orig- 
inated. Holland has long been noted for its dairy 
industry, and the Holsteins and Dutch Belted are 
its two famous dairy breeds. Holsteins have also 
been referred to as Holland cattle, North Holland- 
ers, Dutch cattle, Dutch Friesians, Holstein 
Friesians and by other names. The large frame, 
relatively heavy bone, silken coat, remarkable docil- 
ity and enormous milk yield of the Holsteins are 
commonly referred to as due in part to their origin 
in the fertile plains of Holland. It appears that 
the early Dutch settlers in America brought their 
cattle with them, but no large, well-known im- 
portations took place until about 1850. The 
characteristics of the Holsteins are large size and 
contrasting colors, jet black and pure white. 



106 FARM STOCK 

The weight of the Holstein cows ranges from 
1,200 to 1,500 pounds, and the bulls often weigh 
2,500. The black predominates in some animals 
and the white in others. The color of the animal, 
as a whole, may, therefore, be either white spots on 
a black background or black spots on a white back- 
ground. In America, breeders show a tendency to 
favor black rather than white. The arrangement 
of the spots varies in different animals, but the 
black and white are never mixed. As just indi- 
cated, the Holsteins are the largest of all dairy cat- 
tle. The neck is long and slender, the back line 
level, the hips broad and the legs relatively long. 
The udder is large and frequently of phenomenal 
size, with prominent milk veins and cone shape 
teats. 

Both cows and bulls are exceptionally gentle and 
docile. This breed shows great constitutional 
vigor. The calves are large at birth and grow 
rapidly, maturing at an early age. Holsteins can 
utilize profitably more feed than any other breed of 
dairy cows and the milk yield corresponds to the 
abundance and quality of the feed. There are au- 
thentic instances of cows yielding 100 pounds of 
milk or more a day, and a yield of five to seven 
gallons a day is regarded as an average perform- 
ance, the average annual yield being from 7,500 to 
8,000 pounds. In a few instances, cows have given 
from 20,000 to 30,000 pounds in a year. The milk 
does not average as high in butter fat as that of 
most other breeds, but with exceptional cows the 
fat content is high. In point of numbers, the Hol- 
steins are second only to the Jerseys in the United 
States and are kept in every state and territory in 
the Union. They are most numerous in New 



BREEDS OF CATTLE 107 

York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Wisconsin, Illinois and 
Iowa, about in the order named. 

Dutch Belted — The Holsteins and Dutch Belted, 
as already indicated, both come from Holland and 
probably have a common origin, the colors being 
sharply contrasted black and white in both breeds. 
While, however, the black and white are irregularly 
arranged in patches on the Holsteins, these colors 
are placed with great regularity on the Dutch 
Belted cattle. The animals of this breed are jet 
black, with a broad belt of pure white encircling 
the central part of the body. This belt varies in 
width, but seldom reaches the shoulder blade or 
hip. According to modern standards, no white is 
permitted except in the belt. 

In size, Dutch Belted cattle are about equal to 
the Ayrshires; occasionally individual animals are 
slightly larger. In Holland a deliberate attempt has 
been made to keep this breed almost entirely under 
the control of the nobility. Partly for this rea- 
son the breed is not numerous, either in Europe or 
in America. It was first introduced into New York 
about 1838, but may possibly have been brought 
over by the settlers somewhat earlier. 

The average weight of cows is from 1,000 to 
1,200 pounds and bulls weigh about 1,800. The 
milk production of Dutch Belted is nearly equal to 
that of Holsteins, and the quality is about the same. 
They are good feeders, maturing at a fairly early 
age, but are probably not quite so vigorous as Hol- 
steins. 




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108 



CHAPTER XII. 
The Business of Dairying 

There is a sentiment abroad that dairying is 
becoming unpopular with many, and there is less 
inclination among young men to engage in it. 
If this be so, it is time dairymen took hold of this 
matter to raise the standard of dairy intelligence 
and education up to a point where it will be popu- 
lar. The door must be opened to the boys and 
girls of this country so invitingly, with so much of 
interest and profit in sight, that they will without 
question become our future citizen farmers. "We 
cannot expect much change in those with settled 
opinions. While we may not change much, we 
have it in our power to promote and institute a 
change, an uplift, that shall be a power for good 
to those who come after us. . The door must be 
opened wide, and the light made so clear, it will be 
recognized that getting a start and winning suc- 
cess in life does not imply that one must leave the 
farm. It must be shown that a man may by intel- 
ligent practice have a farm, high producing dairy 
stock, and may know about feeds and feeding and 
produce the best; but it implies study, comparison, 
and gathering the best information and applying it. 

Must Study Your Business — The man who 
refuses to educate and broaden his mind along his 
business, who pins his faith to the reckon and guess, 
will always be found milking mixed-bred cows, in 
which the failures are the most prolific, will be 
feeding everything if it is cheap, and believing that 
all failures are due to the factorv and market end 



110 FARM STOCK 

of his business. As one has expressed it, too many 
men go through life mistaking their gizzards for 
their heads. The moment a man sees and puts 
into practice the idea that he can cheapen the cost 
and increase the excellence of an article, that 
moment he has opened the door to enlarged oppor- 
tunities. 

DAIRY FARMING 

Dairying has long been assuming more and 
more importance as a line of animal industry, keep- 
ing pace in this respect with the growth of large 
cities and the consequent demand for great quan- 
tities of milk and other forms of dairy products. 
In the northern and western states, particularly, 
this development of dairying has been most pro- 
nounced. In the early history of the United States, 
dairying was of far less importance, relatively, 
than at present, largely for the reason that there 
was no steady market for large quantities of dairy 
products and consequently no inducement for 
farmers to keep a large number of cows for dairy 
purposes. The tendency then was for each farm- 
er to milk as many cows as were required for 
the production of the milk, butter and cheese which* 
he needed for his own family. Gradually, how- 
ever, the concentration of population in large cities 
furnished the demand for more dairy products and 
this was the business reason for the extensive de- 
velopment which has taken place along this line. 

Dairy Industry is Large — The importance of the 
dairy industry is seen not only from the number of 
dairy cows and their value, but from the extent of 
dairy products; thus, according to the most recent 
available statistics, farmers sell annually about 2,- 
250,000,000 gallons of milk, and butter and cheese 



THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING III 

factories buy annually about 1,500,000,000 gallons 
of milk. Within recent years, the development of 
creameries on a co-operative or some other basis 
has been rapid and extensive. They have naturally 
used large quantities of milk, as just indicated, in 
the manufacture of butter. Contrary to the wide- 
spread notion, however, there is more than twice 
as much butter made on farms at the present time 
as in factories, the amounts being 1,072,000,000 
pounds on the farms, annually, and 420,000,000 
pounds in the factories. The opposite tendency is 
observed in cheese making*. The process of cheese 
making is somewhat more elaborate than that of 
butter making and requires more skill and expe- 
rience, as well as a more elaborate equipment in 
order to produce a first-class article. 

Cows for Human Food — Good dairy cows pro- 
duce human food in the form of milk much more 
economically than food products can be obtained 
in the form of beef, pork or mutton. Naturally. 
the cost of production of milk and butter varies 
greatly in different localities, according to the price 
of farm labor and feeding stuffs, but the relative 
economy of dairy and beef production varies in the 
same direction in nearly all localities. The only 
apparent exceptions to this rule are found in two 
extreme types of farming conditions found on the 
western ranges and in the neighborhood of large 
eastern cities. On the western ranges the distance 
from the market is so great that milk could not be 
delivered in a satisfactory condition and dairying 
is practically impossible. In the neighborhood of 
large eastern cities, on the other hand, the price of 
land and the cost of feeding stuffs are so high that 
the production of beef becomes altogether too ex- 
pensive as compared with milk production. The 



112 FARM STOCK 

amount of feed required for the production of a 
pound of modern beef steers is nearly, if not quite, 
ten times as great as the amount of feed necessary 
for the production of a pound of milk by the mod- 
ern dairy cow. 

FEEDING THE DAIRY COW 

The dairy cow is fed primarily for one purpose : 
that milk may be produced. Since milk is so largely 
formed of the protein elements of the food, it fol- 
lows that the dairyman must have the best that can 
be secured to supply this kind of ration. Conse- 
quently, the old-fashioned way of feeding any sort 
of feed will no longer prove profitable ; especially 
since lands have increased in value, since labor has 
gone up higher, and more remunerative returns 
have become necessary to the farmer. It used to 
be the custom to turn the cow into the pasture in 
early spring, in a somewhat depleted condition. At 
this period she freshened and then for five or six 
months produced milk ■ abundantly and satisfacto- 
rily. This was because pasture grass was a bal- 
anced feed and supplied her with the necessary 
constituents for the production of milk and butter 
food. Then in the fall, as the pasture began to 
dry up, her milk yield decreased and continued so 
throughout the winter. The winter feeds were 
largely corn fodder, straw and some ground feed, 
like wheat, bran or corn. Naturally, under these 
conditions she never did her best. With the devel- 
opment of the dairy industry there gradually spread 
over the country a better knowledge of the prin- 
ciples and methods of feeding, as they concern the 
dairy cow. As a result, corn has been relegated to 



THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING 113 

the background as unnecessary and even undesir- 
able as feed for cows, except in its use as ensilage. 

So the silo has come and is sure to stay. It of- 
fers the best means of corn consumption for dairy 
cows that we have. Corn ensilage possesses feed- 
ing value of much merit and it possesses at the 
same time the succulence and juices, two things 
very essential in maintaining the milk flow during 
the winter months. But corn ensilage in itself is 
not a balanced feed. While it is succulent, it is 
still lacking in nitrogenous constituents. It stimu- 
lates milk flow, but it does not provide the where- 
with to make milk; hence they must be fed 
something that supplies this feeding constituent. 
Fortunately, the range is very wide. 

In the southern states cottonseed meal is right at 
hand ; in the West are the by-products of the cereal 
factories; and transportation is so rapid that the 
eastern dairyman can secure protein feeds from the 
North and West at no great cost. But in all sec- 
tions corn ensilage may be balanced within reason 
by clover and alfalfa, and no dairy farm is complete 
in its plan, equipment and management if it does 
not include one or both of these great legume 
crops. 

To supply the grain side of the ration you will 
need to go a long way in order to find any feed 
more satisfactory than the cottonseed meal. Com- 
pared to its commercial price, its value is exceed- 
ingly high, and of the various feeds on the market 
cottonseed meal invariably provides protein at a 
less cost per digestible pound than any other food. 
Cottonseed meal is generally available throughout 
the country. Large quantities of it, however, 
ought not to be fed. Three to five pounds for eight 
or nine months in a year should cover the ground. 



114 FARM STOCK 

The remaining part of the daily ration and the re- 
maining months of the year should be supplied 
through the use of some other feed or feeds; linseed 
meal, wheat bran, and others of equal worth and 
value may be used for this purpose. 

In producing dairy feeds you ought to make a 
practice of always considering the cost of the feed 
from the standpoint of its digestible nutrients. Too 
often feeding stuffs have been purchased by name 
rather than because of merit. The point to consider 
is, How many pounds of digestible nutrients do I 
get in a ton of this feed, and what does each pound 
of digestible protein cost me? Figured on that 
basis many dollars will be saved in the feed bill and 
more satisfactory results will be had when the 
profits are figured up at the end of the month or 
year. 

HANDLING A HERD FOR MARKET MILK 

In making milk for the retail trade the producer 
must consider carefully the demands of the trade. 
The consumer is yearly becoming better educated as 
to what constitutes good milk and as to the dangers 
which are often found- in milk when carelessly pro- 
duced and handled. In general, the consumer is 
growing more critical in his demands for high- 
grade farm products and is willing to pay a fair 
price if he can have what he wants. The farmer 
must study the demands of the higher class of trade 
and strive to meet them, or else expect low prices 
for products of only ordinary to fair trade. 

In buying for family consumption the purchaser 
wants milk of good flavor, of a fair degree of rich- 
ness and of good color. Bad flavor is mainly the 
result of improper care in handling the milk during 



THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING 115 

and after milking, although it is not infrequently 
caused by improper feeding and stabling. It fol- 
lows then that, whatever the breed, milk of good 
flavor cannot be produced except under cleanly and 
healthful conditions and under the exercise of good 
judgment as to the kinds and quantities of food to 
be used. Garlic in pastures will surely produce 
garlic flavors, and so will turnips or turnip leaves 
produce a turnip-like flavor. Silage when fed in 
large amounts will produce a fermentive flavor, 
just as it will produce a musty flavor if fed when in 
a state of partial decay. 

The Reason of Bad Silage — The objection of- 
fered to the use of silage by some milk shippers is 
based on its excessive use, or on the use of poor 
silage, coupled with the difficulty of controlling 
these points. While it is true that flavor depends 
mainly on the care used in producing and handling 
the milk, it is also true that milk to be of rich flavor 
must contain a fairly high percentage of fat. Milk 
which has a creamy flavor and consistency is highly 
prized by many people as a healthful drink. There 
are sanitariums where the chief food for nerve and 
brain-worn people is good, rich milk. 

In judging the richness of the milk in fats, the 
consumer is guided by the bulk of cream it will 
produce. The milk from some breeds does not give 
a large bulk of cream nor a well-defined cream line 
after being bottled for several hours. 

Color Important in Milk — But one point looked 
for in a good grade of milk is color. Usually there 
is a close relation in milk between color and rich- 
ness in fats. As a rule, a yellow color means milk 
rich in fats. I have seen striking instances where 
this was not the case, but so usually does the belief 
prevail that a yellow color in milk denotes richness 



Il6 FARM STOCK 

that it is wise to take notice of. Lack of color and 
lack of creaminess are firmly associated in nearly 
everyone's mind with poor quality, and it is a good 
business point for the farmer who retails milk to be 
guided by it in selecting his cows. It must be 
admitted, too, that a decidedly yellow color in the 
milk does give it a more pleasing appearance than 
when such color is lacking. 

Get a Good Bull — In selecting the foundation 
for a herd, the dairyman should not hesitate to pay 
well for a bull that will stamp upon his female 
progeny the power to give quantity, color and rich- 
ness in the product. In selecting females only the 
best should be used for building up the herd. It 
seems to be a rule in breeding that the more mixed 
the blood of the female the greater will be the in- 
fluence of the male. In selecting the females, care 
should be taken to get those which have no tendency 
to beefiness. By selecting foundation stock in this 
way, and by rearing the best of the offspring, a val- 
uable herd for producing high-grade market milk 
may be built up in a comparatively short time. 

PROTECT DAIRY COWS FROM FLIES 

The season of midsummer is one of the most 
trying times for the dairy farmer and then more 
than at any time of the year is it necessary to use 
special care with the dairy herd. During the time 
of harvest, when flies, heat and mosquitoes make 
life a burden for the old cow, she also has to cope 
with dry, short pasture and a very busy keeper. I 
not only sympathize with the old cow, but also 
have some feeling left for her keeper ; for who can 
forget the milking during the fly season, when 
the temperature is very high and one is tired out 



THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING 1 17 

after a hard day's work? Certainly this is not 
an easy task, but the remedy we are anxious to 
hear, and I do not know as I can give a sure cure 
for this complaint. In many ways life can be made 
easier for both man and beast if a few things are 
complied with. 

In the first place, you should bear in mind that 
cows freshening in the spring will have to be milked 
during the winter if they are to be made profitable, 
and if they are neglected during the fly season and 
their milk flow cut down, the chances are they will 
be strippers the balance of the lactation period. 
Therefore, it is very important from an economical 
standpoint to use special care during the hot sum- 
mer months. If the cow switches our face instead 
of her side, and kicks over a pail occasionally, it 
should remind us that it is better often to practice 
winter dairying and see to it that the bulk of our 
cows freshen in the fall and early winter. 

It is true also that a darkened stable is a more 
convenient place in which to milk than in the cow- 
yard or the open shed. You might also bear in 
mind that there are on the market many kinds of fly 
removers, which can be sprayed on at little cost at 
milking time. If this expense is considered too 
high, a light burlap cow blanket will greatly help 
matters; this may be thrown over the cow at milk- 
ing time. I have found that by darkening the 
barn the flies give me little trouble during milking 
time. This can be greatly improved by first using 
a strong disinfective spray, or some material that 
will repel flies. Use this freely about the stalls, 
gutters and windows, and upon everything, so that 
the flies that are in the barn may go out; then 
darken the barn and little trouble will be expe- 
rienced. 



Il8 FARM STOCK 

MAKING CHEESE AT HOME 

Use milk three or four hours old that has been 
held at 70 degrees and which has not as yet com- 
menced to sour. Heat to about 86 degrees, add 
commercial rennet at the rate of three ounces or 
85 cc (cubic centimeters) to 1,000 pounds of milk. 
Allow to coagulate for about 30 to 40 minutes, 
break the curd with a spoon or three-cornered stick 
until the particles are the size of the end of the 
small finger; heat slowly to about 100 degrees, 
stirring almost constantly in the meanwhile, and 
allow to stand at 100 degrees until the curd becomes 
firm. 

A few experiments along this line will show 
about how firm the curd needs to be, but roughly it 
may be stated that it will require about 2>4 hours 
from the time the curd is broken. Drain off the 
whey, stir the curd for 15 or 20 minutes, allowing 
it to cool slowly. Salt at the rate of 2>^ pounds salt 
per 1,000 pounds milk; put in a mold, square or 
round, as desired, and apply considerable pressure, 
The amount of pressure required is rather indefi- 
nite, but should not be less than 100 pounds to each 
cheese. The utensils required are a thermometer, 
a tin vessel for heating and a measure for meas- 
uring the rennet extract. All of these articles, in- 
cluding the rennet extract, can be purchased from 
any supply house. 

KEEPING UP THE MILK FLOW 

It is a matter of importance that the flow of milk 
be kept up to the highest possible point. It is too 
often the case that the matter is not attended to on 
account of the press of work during haying and 
harvest. The feed gets too short in the pasture, 



THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING 119 

the flies bother the cows, and as the amount of milk 
is reduced a little each day it passes unnoticed until 
it is too late to remedy the matter. 

If supplemental feed has been provided in the 
shape of oats and peas, it is well to begin feeding 
them as soon as a shrinkage is discovered. In the 
absence of such feed, green clover, cut and put in 
the manger for the cows to eat when they come in 
at night, makes a good substitute. If fodder corn 





PART OF A DAIRY PLANT 

In the illustration is seen the cement silo, a permanent 
improvement of the dairy farm. The silo is steadily in- 
creasing' its popularitj*. 

was sown or planted thickly for the same purpose, 
one can begin on it soon after the tassels appear. 
I have noticed that the best results from it are ob- 
tained after the ears have formed and the kernels 
are approaching the glazing point. 

When I have had fodder corn to feed during the 
latter part of the summer, especially sweet corn, I 
have found that it was a saving of time to use it, 
for the cows relish the feed so well that they would 
come up for it at milking time. Those who now 



120 FARM STOCK 

have a supply of silage to feed can meet the require- 
ments of the cows very easily, and they are then 
masters of the situation. The silage can be fed with, 
the least extra trouble of any of the supplemental 
feeds. 

ALFALFA FEED FOR DAIRY COWS 

During the past few years many dairymen have 
investigated the merits of alfalfa. What you have 
found out about it has been sufficient inducement 
for you to attempt to supply your wants by grow- 
ing it on your own farm. Unfortunately for you, 
however, climatic and soil conditions offer a handi- 
cap which will be hard for you to overcome in the 
successful growth and harvesting of alfalfa. Our 
best posted men on alfalfa have named it the king 
of all forage crops for feeding purposes and the 
results of feeding tests prove that it has not been 
misnamed. Unlike other feeding material of the 
forage character, it contains that valuable food ele- 
ment known as protein, the milk producing- 
material. 

Two equally important conditions confronting^ 
eastern dairymen are : ( i ) The ever-increasing de- 
mand for dairy products; (2) the insufficient sup- 
ply of good milk producing feeds to keep feed prices- 
down to an economical basis, from the feeder's 
standpoint. It was the shortage of home-grown 
feeds and the lack of protein in natural farm grains 
that developed the necessity of utilizing commercial 
feeds to supply what the regular farm grains 
lacked, the milk producing material. 

I call your particular attention to the alfalfa that 
is grown out West and which is now being offered 
for sale in eastern markets. It offers you an ad- 
vantage you should not be slow in accepting by 




121 



122 FARM STOCK 

adopting its use. Alfalfa contains more protein 
than wheat bran, and, as a basis of a feed for the 
dairy cow, it perhaps has no equal. 

Alfalfa Meal — How are eastern dairymen to be 
supplied with this alfalfa grown so far away in 
these arid sections ? My answer is that it is a mill- 
ing proposition, just the same as supplying you with 
wheat bran and concentrated feeds made from 
wheat, corn, oats and barley, all of which are pro- 
duced in surplus quantities throughout the middle 
west and far northwest. Alfalfa mills located in 
the arid producing sections will be even more neces- 
sary than wheat and corn mills, from the fact that 
the rate on alfalfa in the baled form is excessive, 
while in the milled form it will be reduced to the 
grain products rate basis, the same on which you 
are buying all other commercial feeds. 

COW FEEDING WHEN PASTURE IS SHORT 

A genuine dairy cow is a splendid machine for 
converting a variety of food products into milk, 
but oftentimes, especially during the busy fall, the 
operator fails to realize that the task of changing 
fuel is a severe test for the machine, and, as a 
result, often finds himself trying to repair the 
damage. 

Cows used to making milk from grass alone find 
a great difference in its palatability and nourishing 
qualities as the season advances, and, while they 
may not decrease the .flow of milk as long as there 
is an abundance of grass, a careful survey of their 
general appearance will indicate that they are 
losing the bloom, the freshness, and possibly the 
vigor, that was so marked earlier in the season. 



THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING I23 

Supplementing Pastures — The watchful herds- 
man needs no orders. He at once begins to supply 
the wants thus made known. He has found from 
experience that it is a costly practice to allow the 
milk system to draw from the needed physical 
vigor of the animal, and realizes, too, that the milk 
flow once checked is hard to restore. The alfalfa 
field is called upon to furnish a little greenery, 
else i he tempts their appetites with green sweet 
corn fodder, second crop clover, cowpeas, a few 
potatoes, or, better yet, some silage; they are in- 
vited to nibble at some bran, corn meal, moistened 
beet pulp, or, if necessary, some brewers' grain, 
and if one mixture fails, others are tried until the 
trying fly season is passed and the needed rains 
flush the dry meadows and prompt the clover and 
timothy meadow to furnish a few welcome, suc- 
culent mouth fuls. 

Some Grain May be Fed — Even then the gram 
or selected-variety feeds are not removed entirely 
from the ration, for winter is coining and the 
cow's vigor can more easily be maintained and 
reinforced for the coming cold weather. Oats 
and pea hay may be tried; the early corn fodder 
looks very tempting, and a few hills are cut and 
thrown over the fence and greatly relished by the 
milkers. The straw stack needs brushing down, 
and the chaff should not be left to sour or spoil, 
so the cows are given a romp in the stack yard. 

By this time the evenings are chilly and change- 
able, so the herdsman finds it profitable to keep 
the cows in the barn all night, and soon has them 
on a satisfying winter ration, which he changes 
occasionally for variety's sake. 



124 FARM STOCK 

His cows have not missed the change from 
grass to hay; they are healthy, vigorous and func- 
tional, and eat with relish the various fodders and 
grains which he has in store for them. The milk 
flow is increasing, rather than decreasing, and all 
bids fair to a profit-sharing season. 

Begin Before Cold Weather is at Hand — The 
wave of prosperity will not come to the farmer 
who is less watchful and who waits until cold 
weather before he begins feeding his winter 
forage. 

The grass-made flesh and vigor are lost during 
early fall; the milk check is scarcely worth while 
cashing; the animals have unsatisfying appetites, 
and refuse to respond, even if the herdsman allows 
them special excursions to the feed trough; all 
excess energy stored while the pasture was green 
was expended in trying to make milk out of dry, 
dormant grass, while the milk-making function 
could not be maintained when there were calls for 
the nourishment of the growing foetus. 

The milch cows are mere strippers during the 
greater portion of the winter, and most of the 
blame comes from a lack of care, feed and atten- 
tion during the critical period. It is well worth 
while to take simple precautions in tiding the milk 
cow over from her summer to winter ration. 



CHAPTER XIII. 
The Business of Beef Making 

The making- of beef is one of the large farm 
industries and calls for much capital, great skill 
in breeding and feeding, and constant attention to 
details. Beef raising has had its ups and downs; at 
some periods profitable, at others a losing venture. 
Even the cattle kings in the older days had many 
losses as well as good profits, at times. The de- 
mand for beef is always equal to and sometimes in 
excess of the production ; and this is more likely to 
be true in the future than it has been in the past. 

The control of prices in the sale of beef has 
brought about much hardship to the producer. 
Whether co-operative slaughter houses and sale 
yards will be things of the future only time can 
tell. However, there is certainly now too large a 
difference between the cost of the live animal and 
the cost of the product to the consumer. Either the 
consumer pays too much or the producer gets too # 
little. The simple fact that a number of large 
slaughtering houses have been built up, bringing 
their owners immense profits and incomes, is 
enough to indicate that the margin between produc- 
tion and consumption is too large. 

One of the first essentials in the business of beef 
making is the right sort of stock. The manufac- 
turing animal should be a good beef -making 
machine. If you have primitive live stock, you 
certainly cannot expect very large profits. Deli- 
cate machines produce high-grade work. Finely 



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THE BUSINESS OF BEEF MAKING I27 

bred and carefully attended animals are profitable; 
and just in proportion as the owner is skilled and 
trained in the art of right breeding and right feed- 
ing, will he succeed in the production of beef ani- 
mals that pay. A scrub beef cow is a failure and 
has been so for a long time. She is an old-fash- 
ioned beef-making machine ; she is out of date ; she 
is too slow in doing her work ; and when that work 
is done its quality is often so poor as to be unsatis- 
factory to both producer and consumer. 

Then you must know about the market require- 
ments. Too many men insist on growing beef to 
suit their own ideas and pay no attention to what 
the market requires; hence, when they sell their 
stock they must take what they can get. Not 
only should you study the best market from the 
standpoint of your locality, but study the best mar- 
ket from the standpoint of the class of beef you 

I raise. This refers to breed, to size of finished ani- 

imals, and to their general quality. 

LEARN TO JUDGE CATTLE 

There are several reasons why the feeder should 
be able to judge cattle. Every steer is not a good 
feeder and a poor feeder in a herd cuts down the 
profits. The good judge knows which steers will 
utilize their food to the best advantage, and his 
herd is composed of cattle which will put on flesh 
rapidly. Some experiments haye shown that pure- 
bred cattle can be fattened on less than the poorer 
grades, while, on the other hand, many scrubs are 
found that will make larger gains than thorough- 
breds, on the same amount of feed. 

Reasoning from these facts, the feeder who 
knows just what degree of purity will make the 




128 



THE BUSINESS OF BEEF MAKING 120, 

best feeders, and who can pick from die cattle of 
low breeding those that will make the best gains, 
has a great advantage over the man who cannot 
distinguish between good and bad feeders. 

The success of the feeder depends as much upon 
the kind of cattle bought, and the price paid for 
them, as upon the way in which they are fed. It 
is evident that, if a stockman buys inferior cattle 
and pays a big price for them, he will not 
make a very great profit on them. The buyer 
should know when, where and how to buy, and, 
more important, what to buy. The time of year 
at which the herd is to be marketed influences the 
kind of cattle demanded. 

Christmas Beef — An example of this is the de- 
mand for beef of fancy quality at Christmas. If 
a feeder intends to market at that time, he should 
buy feeders of fancy quality. To be able to do 
this he must know what degree of quality is re- 
quired, and what kind of cattle will finish in a 
fancy condition. During the feeding period, the 
feeder should be able to determine the exact con- 
dition of his herd. If his animals are not making 
the proper gains, the feeder should at once detect 
it, and change the ration. The expert judge knows 
just when to add more roughage, or when the feed 
does not contain the proper amount of carbona- 
ceous or nitrogenous food. 

Another very important thing that the good 
judge knows, is that he is able to detect disease 
and unhealthiness in cattle. The man who buys 
diseased cattle has a poor chance of making any 
profit. Unhealthy cattle do not make profitable 
gains, and are as objectionable in a herd as the poor 
feeder. The purchase of one diseased animal may 
cause the infection of the entire herd. If disease 



130 FARM STOCK 

comes into a herd during the feeding period the 
feeder should be able to detect it, and separate those 
affected from the rest of the herd. 

Study the Requirements — A feeder learns to be 
a good judge by studying the requirements of a 
good steer. He must know what the form of 
a steer should be, low-set, deep, broad and compact, 
rather than long-legged, gaunt, narrow and loosely 
put together. The broad, compact form indicates 
strong constitution, and the low-set animal is 
usually a good feeder. The top and underline 
should be nearly parallel and the flank and twist 
low. Cattle having prominent hips, tail, heads and 
shoulders should be avoided, as smoothness of out- 
line is essential. 

The quality depends very much upon the breed- 
ing of the animal, and the market class into which 
the steer shall go. depends largely upon the quality. 
Good quality is indicated in a smooth, refined head, 
fine bones, and thin skin, covered with silky hair. 
The skin should be loose and mellow. Strong con- 
stitution is necessary if the animal is to make good 
gains. The rapidity of gains depends largely upon 
the amount of food that a steer can digest and as- 
similate, and a strong constitution is required to 
handle a large amount of food. Strong constitu- 
tion is indicated by a wide, deep chest, long and 
well-sprung ribs, compactness of form and fineness 
of bone. If a breeder knows when an animal pos- 
sesses these perfections, he can choose a herd that 
will be good breeders and money-makers. 

BABY BEEF 

In the old days the idea was to raise cattle until 
they reached the age of four or five years and then 
to fatten them. The new idea is to grow beef, 



THE BUSINESS OF BEEF MAKING I3I 

starting with the young animals, that are gradually 
brought to the block at as early an age as possible. 
It requires a great deal of feed, much time and 
effort; and money is locked up for a long period if 
cattle are not sent to the market under five years 
of age. If they can be brought to nearly the same 
weight in from 15 or 18 to 24 months, all the 
feed for maintenance is saved, but half of the labor 
is expended, and the money is used but half the 
period. These are important considerations in 
growing beef or live stock of any kind. 

The raising of baby beef is somewhat of a diffi- 
cult and complicated specialty that has grown up 
within the last few years. Of course, in this busi- 
ness there is no chance for scrub animals. Only 
highly bred individuals that possess good quality, 
good health and the right type need be entered into 
the race of baby beef making. Now baby beef is 
coming to be the rule. It is the sensible kind of 
beef to raise. It is obvious that the sooner an ani- 
mal can be brought to a market condition, the 
greater is the profit. The quicker stock can be 
grown and fatted for the market, the greater the 
profit and the more satisfaction to the producer. 
Many experiments have been conducted in the beef- 
raising section which all point to the greatest suc- 
cess in the production of baby beef. But this style 
of farming requires just a little more skill than the 
old style. Better feeds must be used, they must be 
fresh and palatable and they must be presented in a 
way that the animals will eat the largest possible 
quantities. 

SHELTER 

Several experiments have been made to determine 
if shelter is necessary in the production of beef. 



132 FARM STOCK 

The results indicate that an open shed is preferable 
to either a closed barn or an open barnyard. In 
stall feeding no better results were obtained than 
where fed out in the open with exposure to all kinds 
of weather. The best results are obtained by al- 
lowing the run of the yard with shelter provided 
so that during the cold rains and snows the ani- 
mals may get in out of undesirable weather. A 
small amount of exercise is good for the health, 
and not enough to cause any loss in feed. 

FINISHING STEERS IN THE SPRING 

After being fed all winter on dry foods, which, 
to a certain extent, become monotonous to the fat- 
tening animal, steers will frequently eat but little 
else when turned suddenly upon fresh pasture. 
Unless they are kept off the grass for all but brief 
periods during the first weeks, there will be a check- 
ing of growth due to the fact that the succulent 
grass has disordered the digestion of the animals. 
At the same time they will consume more of the 
fresh, palatable grass and will not eat enough of 
strong nitrogenous or fat producing foods. 

Do Not Give Pasture Exclusively — This calls for 
careful regulation of the diet of the growing steer 
when first put upon the green pasture. They should 
be allowed enough palatable mixed feed to take 
the edge from their appetites, so they will not feed 
heavily upon the grass when turned out. It has 
been found that a good feed of mixed grain, early 
in the morning, will serve this purpose best. If 
the steers are then turned upon the pasture, they 
will not overfeed on the green forage. At this 
time the concentrated meals and ground grains are 
not as good as properly mixed whole grains, for 



THE BUSINESS OF BEEF MAKING 1 33 

the reason that if these are fed in addition to the 
already extremely laxative fresh grass, the animal? 
will be checked in growth. 

A balanced ration cannot be said to be furnished 
by early spring grass alone. This early growth is 
large succulent grass containing practically no ni- 
trogen or fat-producing matter. For this reason 
considerable corn with some dry alfalfa or clover 
hay or some of the small grains should form a part 
of the morning ration. The well-mixed feed com- 
posed of grain, such as oats, barley, rye and corn, 
is, at this time, to be preferred above one formed 
chiefly of corn. 

FATTENING STEERS IN SUMMER 

It is a significant fact that many extensive feed- 
ers, especially along the borders of what is known 
as the bluegrass region, have turned from blue- 
grass to the clovers, or a mixture of the same with 
timothy or broom grass. They believe that the 
net returns in beef per acre are thereby enhanced 
and the crop rotations of the farm better provided 
for. 

The permanent bluegrass pasture has many ad- 
vantages of its own; but in many localities in the 
latitude of central Illinois and northward, large 
yields of such pasture are precluded by conditions 
of soil or climate. In this event, it is but the part 
of wisdom to replace it by that grass or legume 
crop which will contribute most largely to the an- 
nual net profit of the farm and to the advantage 
of the live stock thereon. Unproductive pasture 
land is certainly one of the largest leaks in the 
farming and animal husbandry systems of the cen- 
tral west at this time. 



134 FARM STOCK 

One common mistake in the handling of pasture 
lands is that of supposing mere grazing to be the 
means of keeping up the fertility of the land. If 
the cattle have their feeding, bedding and watering 
places apart from their pastures, the fertility they 
take from the land will be deposited about these 
places. This results in a removal of plant food al- 
most as marked as if hauled off in the form of 
hay. The mechanical application of manure to the 
pasture in that case becomes of importance equal 
to that of the fields devoted to , several crops. 

As to the grain rations advisable for finishing 
steers on grass, we may note, in the first place, that 
the amount of grain fed should be governed largely 
by the relative cost of grain and grass. That is, 
when grass is cheap and corn dear, it is good prac- 
tice to utilize the former to the greatest possible 
extent consistent with the production of a satis- 
factory marketable product. If the quickest finish 
is wanted, the appetite of the steers is the best guide 
to follow. They will commonly eat 17 or 18 pounds 
of corn per 1,000 pounds live weight, or about the 
same amount as in winter. 

If fed a full grain ration, about one-half as much 
pasture area will be required as on grass alone. 
Further, the question whether such a supplement 
as linseed-oil meal or cottonseed meal can be added 
profitably to the corn fed, must be answered con- 
ditionally with reference to the character of the 
pasture crop. With any of the clovers or other 
legumes the need of a nitrogenous supplement is 
generally doubtful, while with bluegrass, or still 
more markedly, with timothy, orchard grass or 
native prairie grasses, such feeds are of distinct 
value. 



THE BUSINESS OF BEEF MAKING 

BEEF CATTLE IN AUTUMN 



135 



The critical time with beef cattle is the period 
when grass fails and they are not yet taken into 
winter quarters. The reference is, of course, to 
cattle that are to be finished some time during the 
winter. To meet the emergency of a dry summer, 
the pasture provided should be in excess of the 




A HOME-MADE DIPPING TANK 

This dipping tank is always ready for use. An occasional 
dipping wards off disease, and plays havoc with lice and 

mange. 



needs of the stock. Such pasture, though in ex- 
cess, will not be wasted. What is not eaten in the 
fall will so protect the plants that early growth 
will follow in the spring, and this will probably 
more than offset any loss from uneaten grass. But 
even the most careful forethought will not pre- 
vent a shortage at such a time in a very dry sea- 
son. 



I JO FARM STOCK 

Supplementary Food — When pastures are short, 
supplementary food of some kind must be fed. 
If no increase was made during this period of 
shortage, all the food eaten would be lost in the 
sense that no direct profit would be made from it. 
Wise forethought, then, will provide such food. 
The form in which it is most commonly furnished 
is that of corn in the stalk, and in some areas sor- 
ghum. It is sometimes furnished in northern 
areas in the form of rape. When thus furnished, 
the cattle are introduced gradually to the rape to 
avoid the danger of bloating. They are allowed 
access to an old grass pasture at the same time to 
counteract the tendency to scouring. Where one 
has only a small bunch of cattle to carry, a few 
acres of rape will go a long way toward putting 
the cattle in high condition, providing the rape is 
well grown. 

How Corn and Sorghum Are Fed — Of course, 
the feeding of corn may begin before the season 
has arrived for harvesting. But to harvest by 
hand, and feed from day to day, is laborious work. 
It is much easier when the corn can be harvested 
with the corn harvester and can then be drawn and 
spread over the pastures. Where the number of 
cattle is large there should be two pastures. The 
corn for one day's feed is thrown down on a fresh 
place each day on the sod, but only every other day 
in each field or inclosure. The cattle that are being 
led up to fattening take the choice from the food, 
and other store cattle eat up what is left. Swine, 
of course, glean also with the latter. Sorghum is 
cut and shocked like corn or is piled in heaps and 
is carried from these to the pastures or paddocks. 

No additional grain is called for unless the cattle 
are to be made ready for the early market; that 



THE BUSINESS OF BEEF MAKING 1 37 

is, before the end of the year. If more grain is 
called for it may be given most cheaply in the form 
of corn. But, of course, other grains will answer 
fed in the ground form. More commonly, it is 
not added to the food until the animals go into 
winter quarters. If farmers would only provide 
for it, the cheapest food that could be used would 
be corn silage. The idea is common that corn 
silage is only good for milk production. When the 
silage is made from corn that is well stocked with 
ears, it is even better relatively for beef produc- 
tion than for milk production when it is the chief 
factor in the ration, as it furnishes a ration much 
more nearly balanced for making beef than for 
making milk. Such food would meet the needs of 
cattle on short pastures better, probably, than any 
other. Think also of the economy of feeding the 
silage, because of the almost complete consumption 
of the stalk. Should the silage not be ready for a 
week or two at the first, corn in the stalk could be 
fed until it is ready. The feeding of the silage 
could begin the day after the silo had been filled. 

It is a matter of much importance that cattle 
thus in process of fattening should be protected 
from cold storms. Especially is this important at 
night. During such periods they ought to be 
protected. Such exposure will greatly retard in- 
crease. No detail should be overlooked that will 
tend to promote their comfort. They can then be 
taken into winter quarters without any hindrance 
to progress from the change. 

SWINE FEEDING AFTER CATTLE 

The plan of allowing swine to feed after cattle 
that are being finished on corn has become so com- 
mon in the corn-belt states that to fatten cattle 



I38 FARM STOCK 

successfully in any other way than in conjunction 
with swine feeding after them is looked upon as an 
impossible thing. That is to say, it is looked upon 
as impossible to make the financial end of the work 
come out right without making swine to glean 
among the droppings. 

The plan of thus fattening cattle and swine in 
conjunction grew out of the exigencies of necessity. 
Corn was so cheap relatively in former years that 
it was possible to feed it ever so freely to animals 
that were being fattened. When corn was 10 to 
20 cents a bushel, it did not matter much though 
it was fed very freely to the cattle. If feeding a 
large amount fattened them quickly, that was the 
great. consideration. ^It was of more consequence to 
rush the cattle in the fattening process than to try 
to save corn. Because of this, it became quite com- 
mon to feed to a cattle beast of 1,200 to 1,500 
pounds weight not less than 25 to 28 pounds of 
shelled corn per day. The animal so fed would 
probably gain 2^2 pounds per day for the short 
feeding period of 100 days, and so much of the 
corn would be undigested that a pig gleaning after 
it would get enough, to produce, say, one pound of 
increase per day. 

Putting the corn at 20 cents per bushel, the beef 
made at 4 cents per pound and the pork at the same 
price, the increase in meat would be worth 14 cents 
and the cost in corn would be but 10 cents. There 
would thus be a gain of 4 cents on the meat made 
in one day, also a further gain in the enhanced value 
of the meat, as shown by the live weight when the 
feeding began. This does not take into account the 
fodder fed or the cost of feeding, nor the value of 
the manure, which would offset both by such a sys- 
tem of feeding. 



THE BUSINESS OF BEEF MAKING 139 

Influence of Changed Food Values — The influ- 
ence of changed food values is going to affect 
mightily such a system of feeding. Take corn at 
40 cents per bushel. Suppose the gains in beef and 
pork are the same. Present prices will scarcely war- 
rant putting the average value of the finished steer 
at more than 4 cents per pound in the feed lot, and 
the same is approximately true of pork. The cost 
of the increase in beef and pork in this case would 
be 20 cents, while the value of the same in the feed 
lot would be but 14 cents as before. Therefore, the 
loss would be 6 cents. To offset this would be 
the increased value of the meat each day that com- 
posed their original weight. 

It is questionable if this would offset the loss re- 
ferred to. Now, suppose corn went up to 50 cents,, 
the prices of meat remaining the same, the chancy 
for making a profit would be further reduced. 

What Musi Happen — It is very evident, there- 
fore, that if finishing beef by this system is to con- 
tinue, there must be modification somewhere. It 
may come in different ways. It may come first 
through the enhanced value of meat, or second, 
through modification in the system of feeding. It 
is evident that the present system is not attended 
with large profits as things are. The prices paid 
for meat must advance or the value of grain fed 
must decline. The margins at present are too nar- 
row. When they become too narrow feeders must 
shut down, or at least curtail their operations, and 
this ultimately reacts upon those who supply the 
cattle. Now, food values are not likely to decline 
seriously. The trend of the level of food values is 
to go up as countries grow older, hence, if meat 
is to be grown in sufficient supply, it must become 



140 FARM STOCK 

more expensive; that is, it must become higher in 
the sense that the grower shall get more for it. 

Another Plan of Feeding — It may be that an- 
other plan of feeding will be introduced. By this 
plan the corn and other grain will be ground. It 
will be mixed with ensilage and fed, or with other 
cut food. Instead of feeding each animal 28 pounds 
of grain a day they will be fattened on less than 14 
pounds a day and the swine will be eliminated from 
the feeding. The gains will be somewhat less than 
two pounds a day on the average and the feeding 
period will extend over five months rather than 
three months. This system calls for more labor 
than the other, but the time is unquestionably com- 
ing when it will pay better. 

It may be, however, that this time is not quite 
here. No one in Europe or Canada would think of 
feeding a cattle beast 28 pounds of grain a day. 
They would not think of doing so, because they 
could not afford it. 

FEEDING INFERIOR CORN TO CATTLE 

The feeding value of inferior grades of corn is 
usually underestimated by the farmer who finds a 
lot of it on his hands. Consequently, he often 
sells it at a sacrifice to some neighboring stockman, 
whose experience has taught him that such corn is 
better than it looks. This is true of light-weight 
corn, which has matured too early by reason of 
drought, and it is true of soft, frost-bitten ears. 
The former is low in starch and oil, having been 
halted in its growth before the storing of these sub- 
stances was completed; but the protein is there in 
nearly normal amounts so that the proportion of 
protein to other nutrients is greater than in sound 
corn. 



THE BUSINESS OF BEEF MAKING I4I 

Good Gains on Frosted Com — Soft, frost-bitten 
corn, excepting its high percentage of water, com- 
pares favorably in composition with sound corn, 
and its feeding value depends chiefly upon the 
amount of moisture it contains. In 1896 and 1902, 
when large areas of corn were damaged by early 
frosts, professional cattle feeders were able to buy 
at their own prices, below ten cents a bushel 
in many cases, all the corn they could use, and in 
most cases it was found that the steers fed out 
with as good gains as in normal years. It is not 
to be inferred that the highest finish can be put 
on choice or fancy feeders with soft, watery corn,, 
but it is a fact that medium and good grades of 
cattle can be made about as thick and ripe as the 
market demands of these grades on a ration of 
soft and even moldy corn, such as the crop of 1896. 
Combined with hay at its present low price, it 
should be the means of producing beef at very low 
cost. Let unsound corn, therefore, be reckoned at 
its true value. 

The class and grade of cattle best adapted to the 
circumstances is the most important matter to be 
decided by the farmer who proposes to convert his 
damaged crop into beef. Those who have to buy 
feeders will find that the prevailing cheap hay^ 
plentiful grass and high-priced corn of this sea- 
son generally favor the handling of yearlings 
rather than calves or two or three-year-olds, be- 
cause they have the greatest capacity for utilizing 
a coarse ration to good advantage. The farmer 
is fortunate who can buy in his own neighborhood 
native yearlings suitable for feeding, but most 
buyers will have to look to one of the markets. 

Quality of Feeders Important — Quality of feed- 
ers is the essential point in cattle of yearling age 










142 



THE BUSINESS OF BEEF MAKING 143 

whether they be natives or western range cattle. 
They should be started on feed while grazing on 
fall pasture, stubble or stalk fields, together with 
the best available roughage. They cannot be fat- 
tened most profitably under eight to ten months, 
and an effort to crowd them more rapidly will 
give disappointing results. Let ten or 12 pounds 
of shelled corn per steer be the upper limit during 
the winter. Regulate the ration so as to keep the 
cattle growing fast and fattening somewhat. A 
600 or 700-pound steer started in October should 
weigh 300 pounds more before the opening of the 
next grazing season. They may then be full fed 
on grass for the July market or grazed over sum- 
mer with little or no grain and fattened in the 
fall. This proposition, of course, requires pasture 
and a supply of good roughage like clover hay. 
It would be advisable only where a part of the corn 
crop matures sufficiently so that it can be kept over 
winter. 

Buying Feeders in Fall — Supposing that a large 
amount of badly damaged corn must be disposed 
of in a short time, or that pasture or leguminous 
hay is lacking, the most suitable cattle to select 
are usually either heavy, fleshy feeders or some 
kind of thin butcher stock. Whenever medium 
or good grade, 1,100 to 1,250-pound, three-year-old 
feeders can be bought at feeder prices, they are the 
most profitable cattle that can be fattened; but 
they are difficult to find in the country, and can 
seldom be bought at conservative rates at the large 
markets. They must be thrifty, and not previously 
burnt out with corn. They can be fattened in 90 
to 120 days, according to their condition and age. 
They may be started on shock or snapped corn, 
and should be on full feed after about three weeks. 



CHAPTER XIV. 
The Care and Management of Cattle 

The cattle-man, regardless of his line, recognizes 
that the most intimate association must exist be- 
tween himself and his stock. It is positively out of 
the question to make a success of dairy cattle or 
beef cattle when the tender is not in close sympa- 
thy with and earnestly attentive to the animals 
under his charge. 

The "animal knoweth his keeper." He who is 
abusive, rough and thoughtless is not a success. 
When you see a flock of sheep, a drove of hogs or 
a herd of cattle at the very heels of their master, 
licking his hands and clothes, you may know that 
there is a chord of sympathy and good will exist- 
ing between the man and his animals. No slip- 
shod attention and care will do. 

You must study the needs of your herd from 
day to day. You must feed and care for them ac- 
cording to each particular period in the lives of your 
animals ; and you must be ever ready to make 
some sacrifice in some direction, if you would se- 
cure the greatest success in the raising of the stock, 
in the production of milk, or in the fattening of the 
steer. 

Just as there is a constant changing demand for 
food from early calf hood to adult age, so must 
there be constant changes of management during 
the period of growth to maturity. 

No general rule will apply for all classes of 
cattle. The scheme or plan of managing a beef 
herd will not be applicable to a dairy herd ; and each 

144 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE 



145 



breed calls for close attention, in some single di- 
rection, to some particular point ; consequently, each 
cattle raiser must thoroughly understand his herd, 
be in close touch with the market to which his milk 
or beef products go and give close attention to the 
feed of his section, the community and individual 
farm. 

He must be conversant also with the drawbacks 




JUST WAITING FOR SUPPER 

This simple contrivance is much esteemed where many 
calves are fed and raised. Each gets its own ration, with- 
out fuss, confusion or fight. 



or strong points of his own farm in its relation to 
the particular breed of cattle or to style of product 
he produces. 

REARING CALVES ON SKIM MILK 

A great many people think a good calf cannot 
be raised on skim milk. For many years our calves 
were such long-haired, stunted, little things we were 
ashamed of them. But we kept on trying until we 
had something to be proud of. After much reading 



14^ FARM STOCK 

and experimenting, we have mastered the subject 
and now raise fine, thrifty calves. After letting 
the calf suck for three days we put it in a pen by 
itself and let it get hungry. Then, with three pints 
of its mother's milk, we teach it to drink; this may 
necessitate two or three trials. A total of only 
four quarts and a pint is given at first in three 
feeds. If the calf does not seem to be very strong, 
we give four feeds, the last at bedtime. It always 
gets new milk warm from the cow until it has a 
good start and is drinking well. This practice con- 
tinues for two weeks. 

When to Begin — At two weeks we begin to feed 
skim milk. A teaspoonful of flaxseed meal is 
mixed with half a teacupful of warm water and 
placed on the back of the stove a few minutes. This 
is mixed with one quart skim milk and one quart 
new milk, and fed three times a day, always at a 
temperature equal to blood heat. Now we have 
the calf taking two quarts three times a day. The 
new milk must always be sweet. We never over- 
feed; if the calf does not drink its milk up clean at 
once we take away what is left and give less next 
time until it has an appetite for three quarts three 
times a day; never any more. Overfeeding on 
skim milk always stunts a calf. Each calf is kept 
in a pen by itself. Since no two calves are alike, we 
are very particular to give his own ration according 
to his age. When each is a month old we begin 
to feed a little hay and a few oats or a little meal, 
thus keeping it growing thriftily. This method in- 
volves some trouble at times, but it pays. 

FEEDING THE DAIRY CALF 

If strong and healthy, the calf should be taken 
away from the dam when two or three days old. 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE 147 

The calf should be feci whole milk for about two 
weeks: then add about one-fourth skim milk, and 
keep increasing it for a week or ten days, until 
the whole milk is entirely displaced by skim milk 
altogether. Frequently, with excellent results, a 
little flaxseed jelly can be used in the skim milk. 
Add this when beginning to feed skim milk; and 
even if the calf is a week old no bad results will 
follow. 

To make this jelly, soak whole flaxseed in hot 
water. This is far superior for young calves to 
any calf meals used as a substitute for milk. If 
you cannot get the whole flaxseed, ground oil-cake 
meal, as found on the market, is a very good sub- 
stitute. 

At two weeks old, place a little whole corn and 
oats in a box so the calves can get at it — they soon 
learn to eat and relish it — as well as hay. With 
this system, calves do well at three weeks old on 
flaxseed jelly, grain and hay, with about one pint 
skim milk added to each feed, morning and even- 
ing, so as to give the jelly a milk flavor. 

Do not allow calves to get fat, but keep them in 
a good, thrifty, growing condition. Get them to 
eat a minimum amount of concentrates. Continue 
this system with the calf until within three or four 
months of cowhood, then feed concentrates liber- 
ally so as to develop the milk-secreting organs for 
service after the birth of the calf. 

FEEDING MILK IN GOOD CONDITION 

Many of the ills of calves arise from giving 
them milk in poor condition. At the creameries 
the vats are sometimes allowed to get in a very 
unsanitary state. They are not emptied and 



148 FARM STOCK 

scalded out with sufficient frequency, and some- 
times washings from the utensils are dumped into 
the vats. In some instances the milk is drawn 
back and kept for a day or two before it can all 
be fed. It has time to become acid and otherwise 
deteriorate, and when fed in such a condition does 
not make a very good food for calves. 

Separator Milk is Best — The best skim milk 
that can be obtained for calves is that which has 
been obtained from new milk run through the 
separator soon after it has been obtained from the 
cow. It is then fresh. It is of proper temperature, 
or nearly so, and is in its constituents almost as 
good as new milk for promoting growth. If the 
pails in which it is kept are scalded, then the dan- 
ger from bacterial contamination is obviated. 

The temperature at which milk is fed is a mat- 
ter of much importance. Cold milk lowers the 
temperature of the stomach, and through it, the 
temperature of the body. Though no further 
harm be done, the lowering of the temperature of 
the body means more food, as, before any gain 
can result, the temperature must become normal, 
and this means that it is made so at the expense 
of food. 

Milk, from what is known as the setting process, 
is usually, if not, indeed, always, below the normal 
temperature. If fed, therefore, at the normal tem- 
perature, it must be heated. 

Sometimes it is heated by adding hot water. 
This dilutes it too much. Again, it is heated over 
a fire. This changes its properties somewhat, and 
is troublesome. Heat is added by pouring in hot 
gruel. This is as good as far as it goes, but does 
not go far enough usually. Hence, simple as the 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE I49 

problem of heating milk seems, it is not so simple 
after all. 

AMOUNT OF MILK FOR CALVES 

The amount of milk for calves varies greatly 
with the capacity of the calf to take it. The 
amount recommended to be fed also varies great- 
ly, some authorities recommending twice as much 
as others. With reference to this question it will 
be correct to say that during the earlier weeks of 
the life of the calf no adjuncts will be found su- 
perior or equal to milk. It is also true at the same 
time that as soon as calves can utilize other food to 
good advantage, it will be found cheaper than milk. 
It follows, therefore, that the calves should be 
given all the milk that they can digest properly 
until they can make good use of substitutes that 
take the place of milk. 

But care should be taken not to overfeed milk,, 
good as it is. This can be easily done. The indi- 
cations of overfeeding soon show themselves in 
deranged digestion, and such derangement is com- 
monly indicated by scouring. The moment that 
such an indication appears the amount of milk fed 
.should be reduced. 

It is very evident from what has been said that 
it will not be possible to name the amounts of milk 
to feed that will be suitable for calves of all ages, 
but it may be possible to state average amounts. It 
would seem safe to say that during the first week 
of the life of a calf it will safely take from six to 
eight pounds of milk, the latter quantity being fed 
at the close of the week. Strong, vigorous calves 
may take as much as ten pounds, but ordinarily the 
smaller quantity is the safer one. Then add one 



150 FARM STOCK 

pound of milk every week with the advance in the 
age of the calf until it is, say, ten weeks old. 

CARE OF CALVES AFTER WEANING 

/Subsequent to the weaning period, calves are 
frequently allowed to lose in flesh, thus, in a 
measure, losing the benefit that would otherwise 
result from careful feeding during the milk period. 
The food and care are not exactly the same with 
calves weaned in autumn as with those weaned in 
the spring. 

Calves weaned in spring usually go on grass 
pasture as soon as it is ready. Such food is very 
suitable for them, and when it is abundant, no 
other food may be necessary. Usually, however, 
it is advantageous to keep up the supplement of 
grain, though it may be in lessened quantity. 

The same is true of calves that are to be finished 
quite young, as when grown for baby beef, calves 
of the beef types or classes intended for breeding 
should be given a less amount, and those intended 
for milk production may fare well enough without 
any. No kind of meal supplement, probably, is 
superior to the following for summer feeding: 
Ground corn, three parts; ground oats, three, and 
wheat bran, one. If only one grain is fed, let it be 
oats. 

WINTERING YOUNG CATTLE SUCCESS- 
FULLY 

Four things are necessary to insure fair growth 
and good condition in young cattle during the win- 
ter. These are all within the power and reach of 
everyone to obtain if he so desires. First, shelter. 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE 151 

Since our timber has been taken away, live stock 
^cannot be left out in open lots as in former years 
without suffering serious loss and discomfort. 
"Where the owner has not sufficient barn room and 
is not able to build it, good shelter can be had by 
making straw sheds for the cattle with but trifling 
expense. Or, in the absence of straw, warm sheds 
may be made by using* fodder for sides and roof 
and this can be fed in late spring when the danger 
of cold rain or snow is past. At any rate, sheds 
can and should be provided for them so that they 
may have protection in bad weather. 

Supply Plenty of Water — Then they should have 
plenty of pure, clean water. Many farmers enter- 
tain the idea that stock cattle will not drink much 
in cold weather. This is a mistake. They are 
eating dry fodder, hay or straw, as the case may 
be, and they must have plenty of water to assist 
nature in dissolving these dry feeds. And they 
should have it at will. By this means they will 
not be so likely to fill themselves full of cold water, 
or sufficiently so to chill their entire system and 
make what should be a source of comfort to them 
a source of discomfort. They should also be fed 
plenty of forage, either fodder or hay, clover or 
mixed preferred, and straw about all they will 
consume, with a small ration of grain once or twice 
a day. 

What Grain to Give — This grain may be fed in 
the shape of corn in the shock if any is grown on 
the farm small enough that they can readily masti- 
cate it; if not, larger corn may be husked and 
chopped into small pieces with hatchet or corn knife 
so that the yearling steer can readily take hold of 
it and eat it. Some farmers shell corn, others pre- 
fer grinding corn, cob and all, and 5 feeding it that 




152 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE 153 

way. This latter method requires more careful 
equipment and greater care in feeding than either 
of the other two methods. For calves, however, 
we prefer shelling corn and mixing one part oats 
to two parts corn. The young animal will do bet- 
ter and make better growth with part ration of 
oats than where corn alone is fed. There is more 
protein in oats and the growing animal needs more 
of that. However, if clover or alfalfa hay is used, 
the protein in that will even up the corn and fod- 
der and make better rations. 

Helping the Manure Pile — When this method 
of disposing of the forage crops of the farms is 
practiced, all rough feeds, such as fodder, hay and 
straw, is worked up into manure and put back upon 
the land from whence it came. And we believe 
that young cattle, sheep or colts, carried through 
the winter on rough feeds mainly, do not pay large 
profits for feeding, yet the incidental profits coming 
from the business in increased fertility and conse- 
quently larger yields of other crops, makes the 
feeding of forage-consuming animals on the farms 
almost a necessity rather than a choice. And in 
these days of close competition and small profits in 
business, farmers are compelled to practice such 
methods as will give them maximum results at 
minimum cost of producing them. 



CHAPTER XV. 
The Diseases of Cattle 

The most successful directions in which the 
treatment of cattle diseases have gone are of the 
nature of prevention, of eradication of cause, and 
of improved sanitary conditions. It does not pay 
very well to attempt simply to cure disease, for 
the cause remains just as it did before. Another 
thing- that has been learned is this fact. Our most 
troublesome, our chief contagious and our greatest 
loss-making diseases are due to germs. Take 
tuberculosis. A few years ago we. considered that 
an hereditary disease only. Now we know it is not 
hereditary, but solely a germ disease, easily ac- 
quired by taking into the system, through air or 
uncooked food, living germs that find comfortable 
quarters in the body. 

Take hog cholera — the most fatal and trouble- 
some disease among swine raisers. It is a germ 
disease. It does not pay to attempt to cure a sick 
hog if the germ still remains on the premises, for 
the cause is still present, ready to rise up at any 
moment to attack oncoming herds. 

The idea back of treating disease among our 
lower animals is to combat the cause, eliminate the 
starting troubles so as to secure thorough sanitary 
conditions, healthful environments and quarters 
free of germ or insect. 

SOME COMMON DISEASES 

Tuberculosis — Without question, this disease is 
the most far reaching among cattle. The annual 

154 



THE DISEASES OF CATTLE 155 

loss is tremendous, not only due to diseased ani- 
mals being either killed or dying of the disease, but 
the loss in production, the shortage in work, 
whether it is beef or milk, is somewhat tremen- 
dous. Not only is this phase to be considered, but 
the number of people, especially babies and chil- 
dren, who by means of milk and butter from tuber- 





itis; 


■ pil1 ini T 









A CATTLE BATH TUB 

The cage here shown is used for dipping the cattle for 
treatment of mange. The dipping tank is now generally- 
used throughout the West. 

cular cows, take this disease annually, is alarm- 
ing. The effort of the experiment stations, the 
department of agriculture, boards of health and a 
score of other workers to lessen and wipe out 
tuberculosis is going along right lines and in the 
end will bring about great good. 

Tuberculosis of cattle is similar to that of peo- 
ple. It destroys the tissues of the lungs, is found 



156 FARM STOCK 

in the intestines and may locate itself in various 
parts of the body. The early signs of tuberculosis 
are unthriftiness, poor appetite, dry cough, papery 
skin, and coarse, rough hair. As the disease ad- 
vances the flesh gradually wastes away, the cough 
increases and often a discharge is seen from the 
nose or mouth. By listening to the lungs, if far 
advanced, considerable difference will be noted 
from the normal action. A physical examination 
may be verified by the tuberculin test, a preparation 
that is injected into the animal just under the skin 
and readily taken into the circulation. If the ani- 
mal is tubercular, the fact is indicated by the rise 
in the temperature eight or ten hours after the in- 
jection. This rise continues for several hours, 
reaching 105 or 106 or even 107 , and then grad- 
ually declines. 

Treating the Disease — There is little to be said 
about the treatment of animals affected with tuber- 
culosis. If they are common animals, perhaps the 
best thing is to slaughter them. In many cities, 
inspection of suspected herds is clone under the 
direction of the state, and some compensation given 
by the state for the slaughtered animals. 

Animals of considerable worth, especially dairy 
animals, may be handled as follows : Isolate the 
tubercular animals from the rest of the herd by 
giving them quarters of their own, off by them- 
selves, where they may have plenty of fresh air, 
an abundance of ventilation in the stables, and 
nutritious food. As soon as the offspring are born, 
immediately remove each one from its mother, 
giving it none of its mother's milk at all. It has 
been proved conclusively that this new born off- 
spring does not possess tuberculosis. If now given 



THE DISEASES OF CATTLE 157 

milk free from tuberculosis germs, it will develop 
into a strong animal, free of the disease. 

The milk from the tubercular herd can be made 
into butter, provided it has been thoroughly steril- 
ized so as to destroy all of the germs. By this 
practice a costly herd of cattle can be maintained 
for the time being, until the offspring are born, at 
a small cost due to the isolation. 

Fighting Tuberculosis in the Stable — A con- 
tinued battle needs to be fought against tuberculo- 
sis in every stable where cattle are, in any great 
quantity, housed or constantly stabled. This will 
apply especially to dairy cattle. A wise practice is 
to test the dairy cows in your herd at the earliest 
possible moment by means of the tuberculin test. 
You can do this yourself; but it is better to get a 
veterinarian who is fully acquainted with all of the 
details of the work. If any of your cows respond, it 
is to your interest to dispose of them. They can be 
sent to the slaughtering houses and there they will 
be passed upon by the government officials. If not 
far gone, they will pass the test and you will get 
the usual beef prices. If in bad health, they will 
be condemned and, of course, you would not want 
them to be used or kept for any reason. 

The next step is to thoroughly disinfect all of 
the cattle quarters. Any of the disinfecting" fluids, 
and lime, will do for this purpose. A monthly 
spraying of the quarters is to be advised and the 
whitewashing of all of the premises at least twice 
each year. And then every six or ten months, 
test the cows for tuberculosis, or until you are 
certain that it has been eradicated. From now on, 
once every year or 18 months will be sufficient and 
by so doing you can be reasonably sure that your 
herd is free of this dreaded disease. 



I 5% FARM STOCK 

It is also advisable to have all purchased cattle 
that go into the dairy herd isolated and tested be- 
fore admitted. In this way you will avoid danger. 

Anthrax — This is an infectious disease due to 
the anthrax bacillus. While most common in cat- 
tle and sheep, it is known also to occur in horses, 
mules and goats. The disease may be transmitted 
from animals to man. It is first noticed as being 
in the skin, lungs or intestines ; breathing is labored 
and the intestinal discharges may be covered with 
mucus and blood; swellings appear as carbuncles 
which, when opened, show a yellowish mass stained 
with blood. Pools of stagnant water are frequent 
sources if contaminated with the bacillus. If such 
a disease has been present, make a most thorough 
disinfection by the use of chloride of lime or other 
disinfecting substances. Vaccination of susceptible 
animals for the purpose of preventing the disease 
has proved very successful and is now generally 
employed. 

Abortion — By this is meant the premature expul- 
sion of the offspring. It may be due to an acci- 
dent, a noncontagious trouble; or it may be due 
to an infectious germ that is contagious and unless 
checked will pass through the entire herd. Symp- 
toms prior to abortion are not generally observ- 
able and no successful treatment has yet been dis- 
covered for handling the disease. It is necessary, 
however, to use the greatest caution in isolating 
aborting animals from the stables and barns, to 
thoroughly disinfect the quarters in which they 
have been placed, and then to frequently use disin- 
fecting liquids every week or ten days so that the 
disease will not spread to other members of the 
herd. 



THE DISEASES OF CATTLE 



159 



Texas Fever — The greatest bane of soutnern cat- 
tle raising has been Texas fever. It has been only 
recently that this ailment has been clearly under- 
stood. Now we know it is due to the ticks that 
seek to live on southern cattle. One of the ob- 
servations early made was that young cattle never 
were inconvenienced nor troubled with ticks, but 




A CASE OF TEXAS FEVER 

A familiar attitude assumed -when afflicted with Texas fever, 
caused by the cattle tick. 



that old cattle, if they had never had ticks on them, 
would invariably die when the ticks came. Cattle 
that had carried ticks from young calf hood went 
into old age bearing this parasite for years without 
any disease manifestation at all. These differences 
were not clearly understood until recently, when 
the following facts were brought out : 



l6o FARM STOCK 

First, that young calves are usually immune. 
Cattle ticks do not bother them and by the con- 
tinued carrying of ticks they carried their immu- 
nity throughout life. 

Second, that if the young calf was not rendered 
immune by having ticks on it at an early age, that 
same calf, when reaching the age of 15 or 18 
months, would succumb to the disease if infested, 
because it had not been rendered immune while 
young. 

Third, inoculation for the purpose of securing 
immunity has been practiced successfully. The 
most rational treatment of Texas fever is in the 
order of prevention. That is, to keep the ticks off 
the farm. It is not good farming to have each ani- 
mal carrying thousands of big ticks, constantly 
filled with blood, even though they do not threaten 
the life of the animal. It should be remembered 
that these ticks consume great quantities of nutri- 
ents that have been given the animal in form of 
good food. The flesh of tick-infested cattle is 
not good, and they never reach the highest develop- 
ment ; and it is an easy matter to keep ticks off the 
farm. By keeping cattle off the field for a year, 
the ticks will be entirely destroyed. The following 
year, turn the cows in a field that has been cleared 
of ticks, being sure that no ticks are on the cattle; 
and then, by keeping all cattle off of the infested 
parts of the farm for another year, complete eradi- 
cation will be effected. 

Any sort of grease or lard rubbed by means of 
a brush onto the cow along her abdomen and legs 
and neck, or such parts of her body as touch the 
ground when she lies down, will reach all of the 
ticks and in a short time they will drop off dead. 



THE DISEASES OF CATTLE 



161 



Foot and Month Disease — This is a common dis- 
ease throughout Europe and threatened our coun- 
try quite seriously a few years ago, especially in 
New England. The very quick and effective work 
of the states in conjunction with the United States 
Department of Agriculture quickly wiped out the 
disease. 




FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE 

In this case the dreaded disease has affected the udder. 
When affected, the only method of treatment is immediate 
slaughter. 



The disease itself is highly infectious, the drus 
being found in eruptions in the mouth and on the 
feet; in the milk and other products of the barn- 
yard. The death rate is low. The chief symptoms 
are rise of temperature, loss of appetite, followed 
by blisters and sores in the mouth, on the tongue 
and lips. Even the udder may show such spots. 
Many cases are known where the hoofs were com- 
pletely destroyed. 



1 62 FARM STOCK 

Vaccination has been practiced, but not very sue* 
cess fully. The best method has been to destroy 
all of the diseased animals and then to thoroughly 
disinfect all quarters where such animals have been. 

Milk Fever — This disease is peculiar to the cow 
at the time of calving. It may be due to bad sani- 
tation, poorly ventilated stables, mature age, etc. 
The disease ordinarily appears from one to two 
days after calving. Some claim that the disease 
is due to excessive milk secretion, but the cause is 
not clearly understood by the scientists. 

Milk sickness is usually associated with the 
heavy milking cows. The common treatment of 
milk sickness now is to inject ten grams of iodide 
of potash into the udder as soon as possible after 
the symptoms of milk fever are noticed. 

One of the most common treatments is to simply 
pump air into the udder. I know many people who 
have resorted to the common bicycle pump for this 
purpose and in a few hours the afflicted animals 
were up, moving about, and as full of life as ever. 

Cornstalk Disease — The cause of this disease is 
not known. The symptoms are digestive disturb- 
ances, accompanied by delirium and unconscious- 
ness. The most reasonable view to take is that it 
is some germ disease associated with molds in the 
food. If once attacked with the disease, the afflicted 
animals succumb very rapidly. The greatest 
caution is here suggested in the use of moldy food. 
Cornstalk disease has, perhaps, been more prevalent 
throughout the western states than elsewhere in 
the country. 



CHAPTER XVI. 
Sheep 

From the earliest ages the sheep has been a 
source of profit to mankind, and its keeping and 
rearing an important industry. Abel, the second 
son of Adam, chose sheep herding as his employ- 
ment; and although his brother chose to till the 
soil, the tending of herds and flocks became the 
favorite occupation of the human race in its early 
periods. In those days people did not till the soil 
more than they were obliged to. Of course it was 
very easy to tend the flocks, because there were 
few people and much land and it is very likely 
that the sheep was the earliest animal domesti- 
cated. 

So dependent is this animal on man that without 
him he could not exist. Having always yi elded 
to his master's will, gone where that master bade 
him and been protected as much as possible against 
all dangers, he has become stupid and dreamy. 
His senses have lost their acuteness. 

As civilization progressed stage by stage, and the 
manufacture of garments of wool displaced those 
of skin, careful breeding began to improve the 
fleece, and varieties among sheep became fixed in 
type. Later on, as people became more settled in 
their occupations, cities were built and demands 
for mutton increased; and that demand has in- 
creased, until, at the present day, it is greater than 
the supply. It has been stated that the markets 
of the city of New York alone require more than 
one million sheep each year. 

163 



164 



FARM STOCK 



While the sheep industry has always been one 
of prominence in the United States, it has always 
been less than its worth has merited. There is 
a place on every farm for some sheep. Wool is 
in constant demand and usually commands good 
prices. Mutton may be consumed at home, re- 
placing some of the pork, or it may be sent away 
to the markets of the world. Sheep will graze on 
pastures that other farm animals reject; and 
wherever the sheep's feet tread for any length of 
time, the land improves and wealth abounds. For 
this reason, this beast has been termed the "animal 
with the golden hoof." 




A PAIR OF COTSWOLDS 

The ewe and ram shown here are both prize-winning 
individuals. They have to their credit silver medals and 
championship ribbons. 



CHAPTER XVII. 
Breeds of Sheep 

Merino — The Merino sheep was evolved in 
Spain, and has been reared there for centuries. 
From Spain they have been exported into the vari- 
ous countries of Europe, United States, Australia, 
etc. The first importation into the United States 
was made in 1802 by Col. Davis Humphreys of 
Derby, Connecticut. Under the influence of Ameri- 
can and French breeders, the old Spanish Merino 
has been improved so that the forms now known in 
the United States are the American Merino, the 
Delaine Merino, and the French Merino or Ram- 
bouillet. The Delaine Merino has been evolved 
from the American Merino and differs from it in 
the longer fleece and improved mutton form. 

The American Merino is one of the smallest 
breeds in the United States. The ewes at maturity 
weigh from 90 to 125 pounds and the bucks, when 
in good condition, from 140 to 175 pounds. The 
skin of the Merino is characterized by heavy folds, 
especially about the neck; wool is fine and very 
dense. The fleece will weigh 10 to 15 pounds 
more in the rams. It is one of the hardiest sheep 
in the United States and adapts itself to various 
conditions of climate and food products better than 
any other breed. It can be herded in flocks of 
thousands where the mutton breeds cannot be suc- 
cessfully herded in flocks of over 200. 

They are the sheep par excellence for grazing. 
They do not become fully mature until the age of 
three or four years, and their feeding qualities are 

165 



1 65 FARM STOCK 

inferior to those of the mutton breeds. The meat 
is lacking in tenderness and flavor, and contains 
a large proportion of bone to meat. Within recent 
years many of the eastern flocks of Merinos have 
been crossed with the mutton breeds, for the pur- 
pose of producing an all-around wool and mutton 
sheep. 

Delaine Merino — The Delaine Merino has been 
produced from the American Merino. It has a 
larger carcass, a better mutton form, is nearly free 
from folds and wrinkles and carries a longer fleece, 
though not quite as fine nor as well glued together 
on the surface as the American Merino. 

The chief sub-types of the Delaine Merino are 
the Standard, the National and the Improved De- 
laine. Closely related to these in their leading 
characteristics are the Black Top Spanish Merino, 
the Improved Black Top Merino and the Dickin- 
son. All the Delaine Merinos have horns, and 
more or less wrinkles or folds about the neck and 
breast. The Black Top Merinos, likewise, have 
horns in the rams, but do not have wrinkles, and 
the fleece is more of a black. The Dickinson or 
Polled Merinos have neither horns nor wrinkles. 
They are a little larger in size and the fleece is 
longer than the Delaines. 

Ewes of the Delaine type, when mature, will 
weigh from ioo to 150 pounds, the rams from 140 
to 190 pounds. They are practically equal to the 
American Merinos in hardiness and grazing 
powers, but are superior to them in early maturing 
qualities, in the quality of the mutton produced and 
in feeding qualities. The Delaines are used ex- 
tensively for crossing on western range sheep, 
where the fleece has become light and open. The 
fleece in ewes will weigh from nine to 15 pounds, 



BREEDS OF SHEEP 1 67 

and in the bucks, 12 to 18 pounds. The minimum 
length of the fleece is three inches. 

Rambouillet — In 1786 the French government 
imported from Spain 383 selected Spanish Me- 
rinos. These sheep were kept chiefly at Ram- 
bouillet, where they have been carefully bred by 
rigid selection and liberal feeding, and greatly 




RAMBOUILLET RAM 
A sturdy representative of the old French Merino class. 

improved in mutton form, quality of meat and 
weight, without the introduction of any outside 
blood ; both the weight of the carcass and the 
weight of the fleece have been increased from 100 
to 150 per cent over the old Spanish Merino. 
These sheep were introduced jnto the United States 
in 1840, but did not become specially prominent 
until during the last 20 years. Full grown rams 



1 68 FARM STOCK 

of this breed will weigh up to 225 pounds and the 
ewes up to 175 pounds. 

These sheep are much taller, stronger limbed 
and more rangy than the American sheep, have a 
better mutton form, are less wrinkled and the wool 
is longer, though not quite so dense or fine, and 



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SOUTHDOWN EWE 

A saddle of Southdown has long been considered one of 
the choicest of all morsels. Some of the best in the world 
are raised in this country. 

freer from yolk, than the American Merino. They 
are also taller and heavier than the Delaines, but 
have not quite so good a mutton form, though 
very similar in other respects. 

The Rambouillets have the same hardiness and 
feeding qualities as the American Merinos and, 
while the quality of the meat is excellent, it is 



BREEDS OF SHEEP 



I69 



not quite equal to that of the mutton breeds. These 
sheep are especially valuable for crossing upon 
range stock for the purpose of securing a larger 
carcass and heavy fleece of wool. They are at 
present largely used alternately with Cotswold 
rams on western range flocks. 




A SHROPSHIRE AT ATTENTION 

Of the medium wool breeds, the Shropshire leads all others 
in numbers. Nearly 25,000 were registered last year. 



Southdown — The Southdown originated in 
England, and was imported into this country at 
the beginning- of the nineteenth century. It is a 
smooth, round-bodied, symmetrical sheep, with a 
brown, gray or mouse-colored face and feet. The 
fleece is rather dry, coarse and light. They are horn- 
less and while the smallest of the medium breeds, a 



170 



FARM STOCK 



medium fat, two-year-old wether will weigh from 
130 to 140 pounds. They are especially well 
adapted to hilly lands with a dry soil, short, dry 
herbage. They stand in the first rank among 
early maturing breeds, and the meat is of the best 
quality. They are vigorous and especially desirable 




A PAIR OF HAMPSHIRES 

Hampshires are black-faced, hornless and black-legged. 
This sheep Is gaining in popularity, because of its heavy 
fleece, good grazing quality and large size. 



for crossing where mutton is chiefly sought. They 
have been used to a greater extent in the produc- 
tion of the various other pure, dark-faced breeds, 
than any other of the Down breeds. They are 
inferior in wool production, giving an unwashed 
fleece that will average from five to seven pounds 
in weight. 



BREEDS OF SHEEP 171 

Shropshire — The Shropshire is the most popu- 
lar mutton breed produced in the United States. 
It is well proportioned, symmetrical, and a little 
heavier than the Southdown. The ewes will weigh 
up to 175 pounds, and the rams up to 225 pounds. 
It is of English origin and was evolved out of the 
Southdown, Cotswold and Leicester breeds. It 
was first imported into the United States in 1855. 
They are especially adapted to general farm con- 
ditions where the land is well drained and where 
pasturage is good. The ewes are very prolific, 
producing on the average about 40 per cent of twin 
lambs. 

The unwashed fleece will average nine to ten 
pounds in weight in ewes, and 12 to 15 pounds in 
the rams. The face is grayish black and the legs 
still darker; in recent years there has been a tend- 
ency toward somewhat lighter faces. 

As compared with the Southdowns, the Shrop- 
shires have a longer and heavier body and a heavier 
fleece. The head is more completely covered with 
wool, and the wool is longer, though not so fine; 
it is what is known on the market as medium De- 
laine or half combing wool. 

It is one of the best general-purpose sheep for 
farm flocks, since it produces a high quality of 
mutton, a good grade of wool, which brings nearly 
top prices, and a large percentage of lambs. 

Hampshire — The Hampshire is a hornless, 
black-faced, black-legged sheep. Like the South- 
down and Shropshire, it originated in England and 
is the outcome of a cross of the Improved South- 
down upon the Wiltshire and Berkshire Knot sheep. 
It is much larger than the Southdown, more pro- 
lific, produces a heavier fleece, and has better 
grazing qualities. It is larger than the Shropshire 



172 



FARM STOCK 



and the lambs grow more rapidly to maturity. 
They are especially adapted to an intense system 
of farming, and for crossing where early, quick- 
maturing, large-sized lambs are desired. 

The unwashed fleece will weigh from seven to 
ten pounds in the ewes and a little heavier in the 




A HORNED-DORSET BUCK 

For the production of hothouse lambs no breed is 
more popular than the Dorset. The breed is gaining in favor 
every day. 



bucks. The wool corresponds to that of the Shrop- 
shire, but is perhaps a little coarser. They are a 
stylish, handsome sheep of the mutton form, and 
are quite widely distributed throughout the United 
States. 

Suffolk— This is a medium wool, hornless, mut- 
ton breed, with a long, black face, and a genera! 



BREEDS OF SHEEP 173 

absence of wool on the head and between the ears, 
which constitutes the principal difference in appear- 
ance between the Suffolk and Hampshire breeds. 
The body is rather long, the legs jet black. The 
Suffolks occupy an intermediate place between the 
Shropshire and the Hampshire. They have not 
been extensively bred in the United States. 

Oxford — The Oxford Downs originated in 
England as a result of crossing Cotswold rams 
upon Hampshire Down ewes and the selection and 
mating of the progeny. These sheep since 1857 
have been known as Oxfordshire Downs or Oxford 
sheep. They are widely distributed over the United 
States. They are the largest and heaviest of the 
Down breeds. When in good flesh, the rams 
should weigh '250 to 275 pounds, and the ewes 
from 200 to 225 pounds. The wool is rather 
coarser than any other of the medium wools and 
the fleece is heavier, weighing from ten to 12 
pounds unwashed. 

The Oxfords resemble the Hampshires in gen- 
eral form, but are a larger breed and the face is 
not so dark. It is usually an even dark gray or 
brown, with or without a gray spot on the tip of 
the nose. They are best adapted for lands furnish- 
ing good pasture, and do not succeed as well under 
range conditions or on rugged, broken pastures as 
either the Shropshire or Southdowns. 

Dorset — The Dorsets are one of the oldest Eng- 
lish breeds of sheep. Both sexes are horned. The 
face is white with a tendency toward a slight Ro- 
man nose. They are considerably larger than the 
Southdowns. The average weight for a mature 
ram is about 215 pounds and for mature ewes, 165 
pounds. The wool is short and will average six to 
eight pounds unwashed to the fleece. 



i/4 



FARM STOCK 



The Dorset is a solidly built sheep, and especially 
esteemed for its prolificacy. When properly man- 
aged, two lambing seasons a year are possible 
with this breed. This makes the Dorset especially 
popular for the production of winter lambs. When 
bred in May, they produce lambs for the Christ- 





A CHAMPION LEICESTER EWE 

If you do not like sheep for wool only, then why don't you 
try mutton? 



mas market, and will breed again soon after drop- 
ping their lambs. They frequently produce twins 
and often triplets. The ewes are frequently bred 
to Southdown or Hampshire rams to give the mar- 
ket lamb a black face, which is generally pre- 
ferred by the butchers. The Dorset is generally 
regarded as the most prolific of the sheep breeds. 



BREEDS OF SHEEP 175 

The ewes are exceptionally good milkers. They are 
a hardy sheep; good rustlers; have early maturing 
qualities, and the mutton is superior. They stand 
unrivaled among the sheep breeds for the produc- 
tion of winter lambs; i. e., unweaned lambs which 
can be marketed during the holidays and winter 
months. 

Cheviot — The Cheviot is a mountain breed of 
sheep, hardy and does well on scant pasture. They 
are native to the Cheviot hills of England. These 
sheep are distributed in nearly all the states east 
of the Mississippi river. They are a medium- 
sized sheep, the rams weighing 175 to 200 pounds, 
and the ewes from 135 to 150 pounds. The wool is 
rather coarse, the fleece weighs eight to ten pounds. 
They are especially sought where hardihood is im- 
portant. The breed is pure white, including a 
white face and white legs. Occasionally there are 
small black spots on the head and ears. The end 
of the nose is dark. They do not bear close con- 
finement as well as some of the other breeds. The 
mutton, though of good quality, is not equal to 
that of the Southdown. 

Leicester — The Leicester is one of the long- 
wool native English breeds which, though popular 
in England, have never made much headway in 
America. There are two types of Leicesters, the 
Bakewell and the Border Leicester. They both 
have the same general style, but the Border Leices- 
ter is a little the larger and not quite as compact 
as the Bakewell. They are a white-faced, square- 
bodied, hornless breed. The mature bucks weigh 
225 to 250 pounds, and ewes 200 to 225 pounds. 

The unwashed fleece will weigh from nine to 1 1 
pounds. The wool is of good length and fiber, 



i?6 



FARM STOCK 



and hangs in spirals at the outer surface, cover- 
ing the whole carcass except the head and legs. 
They are especially suited to thickly settled condi- 
tions where there is an abundance of succulent 
vegetation. They are easy keepers, mature early 
and make excellent use of the food given them. 
They are only fairly well adapted for rough graz- 




A FINE LINCOLN FLOCK 

The Lincoln belongs to the large mutton class of sheep. This 
breed is growing more and more popular in this country. 



ing purposes. In prolificacy they are not equal to 
some of the other breeds. 

Lincoln — This is probably the most popular of 
the long-wool breeds of sheep. It originated in 
Lincolnshire, England, and has been distributed 
all over the world. They were first imported into 
the .United States in 1836. They are the heaviest 
of all the breeds of sheep raised in this country. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 
Sheep Feeding 

The variety of foods suitable for the feeding of 
sheep is extensive. Hay, straw, corn fodder, roots 
of various kinds, corn, oats, peas, rye, buckwheat, 
cottonseed and linseed-oil meal, and bran, furnish 
a variety of food from which a proper choice can 
readily be made. The relative feeding values of 
these various substances used as food will deter- 
mine their relative money values, and as these dif- 
fer and fluctuate from time to time, it is often 
necessary, to secure the most profit on the feeding, 
to choose the food that is most economical in use, 
although it may be the highest in price. 

Clover - and alfalfa hay are the most valuable 
foods for winter use, cut when in blossom, cured 
so as to preserve all good qualities and kept free 
from damp and mold. Where the main object in 
view is the production of market lambs, either kind 
of hay should furnish the chief subsistence of the 
ewes. They will also be found preferable as the 
staple and cheapest fodder when sheep are pur- 
chased for feeding for market and the most rapid 
growth of flesh is desirable. 

Well-cured pea straw will be chosen by sheep 
next to clover or alfalfa hay, and before timothy 
or any other hay. Oat straw is readily eaten by 
sheep, and is a healthful food, especially if har- 
vested before the oats were dead ripe. Barley, 
wheat, and rye straw will help to keep life in a 
flock, but are not sufficiently nutritive to contrib- 
ute much to the growth of flesh or wool, and 

177 



178 FARM STOCK 

should be used only as adjuncts to roots and grain 
or oil-cake meal. 

ROOTS ALWAYS FINE FOR SHEEP 

Roots furnish a staple food of the greatest value 
for winter feeding of sheep. When fed in proper 
quantities, their laxative effect healthfully opposes 
the tendency of dry hay or straw to produce cos- 
tiveness, and in addition they supply a considerable 
proportion of needed phosphates and sulphur for 
the growing animal and its fleece. But if fed in 
excess, the large quantity of water they contain, 
and their large bulk, especially when they are fed 
in the winter, reduce the temperature of the animal 
too much, and gradually act unfavorably on the 
health. When ewes in lamb are fed roots in any 
but very small quantities, abortion is frequently 
produced, and this ill effect has been noticed more 
conspicuously when the roots have been manured 
heavily with superphosphate of lime. This has 
been noticed by some extensive feeders and breed- 
ers in England, where that fertilizer is largely used 
in root culture, and their experience should serve 
as a warning to us. 

The reason assigned for the loss of lambs by 
abortion when many turnips are fed, is not only 
that the foetus is affected by the presence of a mass 
of very cold matter in the stomach of the ewe, but 
that there is an irritation produced in the intestines 
by this unacceptable food, which causes the death 
and expulsion of the foetus. Nothing of the kind 
has occurred in flocks that have been largely fed 
on cooked roots, applied at such a temperature that 
would prevent a chill to the animal. It may, there- 
fore, be understood that it is the low temperature, 



SHEEP FEEDING 1/9 

generally near freezing, and often below it, at 
which the roots are given, and nothing in the roots 
themselves that acts thus injuriously. Knowing 
this, the ill effect likely to be produced may easily 
be avoided. 

The roots that are generally fed to sheep are 
sugar beets, mangels, rutabagas, yellow turnips and 
white or corn horn turnips, and are to be preferred 
in the order in which they are here enumerated. 

Roots Are Nutritious — Considering the large 
quantity of water contained in them, roots may be 
considered as highly nutritious food, and when fed 
in conjunction with dry fodder, and in proper pro- 
portions, are generally conducive to the health and 
growth of the sheep. Their effect upon the quality 
of the wool, especially the lustrous wool of some 
of the long-wool sheep, is very favorable. The 
proper quantity of roots to be given depends upon 
the kind of sheep. As a safe guide, it may be es- 
timated that one bushel of roots will be a sufficient 
daily allowance for ten sheep weighing 150 pounds 
each live weight, if along with the roots, \Yi pounds 
of hay and one-half pound of meal or bran per 
head be given. 

LET SEVERAL GRAINS BE USED 

Grain, or preparations of grain of various kinds, 
furnish the concentrated foods which are found 
needful to maintain sheep in healthful condition, 
or to induce the rapid growth and fattening for the 
market. These foods exist in abundant variety, but 
no one alone can be fed with the greatest benefit for 
any length of time. A change of food is both ac- 
ceptable to, and healthful for sheep, and the dif- 
ference in the monev value of these articles of food. 



l8o FARM STOCK 

which exists at nearly all times, makes it necessary 
to exercise a judicious choice in this respect, in 
order to secure the greatest profit. 

The fat-forming elements in any article of food 
consist of starch, sugar, gum, oil and fat, all car- 
bonaceous matters, or matters rich in carbon, with 
the addition of certain proportions of hydrogen and 
oxygen. The chemical composition of these ele- 
ments is very similar and in some of them is nearly 
identical. Thus an animal fed upon starch or 
sugar may become fat, and it is well known that 
bees fed upon sugar are able to produce honey or 
wax from this food. In the process of digestion 
and assimilation, starch, sugar and gum are changed 
to fat. This fat is either consumed in the. process 
of respiration, or is stored up in the tissues of the 
body, and increases the weight of the carcass. But 
in the consumption of food rich in starch, a much 
larger proportion is necessary to produce a given 
weight of fat, or a given result in the process of 
respiration, than is required of a food rich in fat 
or oil. 

CHOICE MUST BE EXERCISED 

In choosing the variety of food, then, for a spe- 
cial object, as, for instance, the feeding of a young- 
growing animal, or the fattening of a mature ani- 
mal and the sustenance of a sheep that produces 
fleece rich in oil or yolk, as that of the pure-bred 
Merino, those foods which would furnish abundant 
flesh should be chosen for the one, and those rich 
in starch and oil for the others. By thus choos- 
ing judiciously and skillfully, there is an economy 
in the cost of food, and the object sought is gained 
at the least expense. 



CHAPTER XIX. 
The Care and Management of Sheep 

In handling sheep, just remember that they are 
naturally timid and of a nervous disposition. The 
highest success in sheep raising cannot be expected 
unless the flock keeper by his quiet manners and 
gentleness inspires confidence in them. A sudden 
disturbance of any kind, like the bark of a dog, 
will startle the whole flock and sometimes create 
a panic. Some shepherds make a habit of whis- 
tling or talking to the sheep as they approach them 
unexpectedly. 

Whenever sheep are handled, gentleness and 
quietness should be insisted upon. This sort of 
training and custom is of especial value at lambing 
time. The shepherd with experience knows what 
this advice means, and if you will observe him as 
he works day in and day out, with rams, ewes and 
lambs, the wisdom of such attention will be seen 
and its force, in successful management, appre- 
ciated. 

And then remember, too, that the lambing period 
is the most critical time in the life of a flock. Con- 
stant attendance during day and night is called for. 
If the lambing season occurs in cold weather, the 
lambs may become chilled before they are able to 
suck their mother. If twins are produced, the 
mother may give attention to only the stronger one. 
Here it is the shepherd's duty to see that the 
weaker one gets its full supply of nourishment. 

If the young lamb is unable to suckle within a 
few minutes after birth, it should have help, and it 

181 



1 82 FARM STOCK 

is often necessary to hold the ewe for this purpose. 
Sometimes the mother refuses to own her offspring. 
This trouble can be overcome by shutting her up in 
an individual pen out of the sight of other sheep 
and with only the lamb for company. You may 
even have to hold her a few days until she submits 
to the charge. Some shepherds sprinkle the 
mother's milk over the lambs, often with good 
results. 

When a strange lamb is placed with another ewe, 
due to the death of her own offspring, many prac- 
tices are resorted to in order to induce her to own 
the strange lamb. The common practice is to re- 
move the skin of the dead lamb and to tie on to 
the lamb which is to be adopted. This is an old 
custom and generally satisfactory. 

Should a lamb become chilled after birth, it can 
often be resuscitated by putting it into a pail of 
water as hot as it can stand. It should be covered 
entirely with water, leaving only the nose exposed. 
When the water becomes cool more warm water 
should be added. It may be necessary to do this 
two or three times if the lamb is chilled, after 
which the lamb should be rubbed dry with a towel 
and fed with warm milk heated to blood heat. In 
severe cases a few drops of whisky or brandy 
added to a teaspoonful of water have been given 
with good success and can be generally recom- 
mended. 

After reviving, the lamb can be returned to the 
flock and will require no further attention. When 
lambs are two to six weeks old the tail should be 
cut off, using for the purpose a sharp jackknife. 
A stub about two inches long should be left. Some 
use a chisel for the purpose. The tail of the sheep 
is a useless appendage, difficult to shear and likely 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP 183 

to get besmeared and unsightly; consequently with 
farm flocks docking has been resorted to, and is 
now an universal custom. 

WEANING THE LAMBS 

Every nockmaster realizes that the weaning of 
the lambs from the mother ewes is generally an 




ALL THREE ARE FRIENDS 
A case where the dog and sheep get on well together. 

ordeal that is attended with a good deal of mani- 
festation of displeasure in the way of bleating on 
the part of both the ewes and the lambs. From 
the time the lambs are dropped in the spring 
to the time they are taken from the flock, they are 
dependent on the mother ewes, first, for the milk, 
which sustains them, and second, for the company 
or companionship. 



184 FARM STOCK 

When the lambs are taken from the ewes and 
compelled to suffer from hunger and lonesome- 
ness, it is no wonder that they bewail their condi- 
tion and shrink in flesh, and that a considerable 
time may be required to recover and start along 
maintaining themselves and improving in condition. 

I have noticed that large, thrifty lambs, that are 
good eaters, make less ado when taken away from 
the flock than the weaker and unthrifty ones. I 
have also found that if the lamb's stomach is well 
filled with nutritious food, it stands the loss of 
companionship much better, and more readily 
adapts itself to the new conditions. A little extra 
pains taken to prepare for weaning will be paid in 
saving of loss of flesh, as well as a good deal of 
worry and bleating on the part of the ewes and 
lambs. 

A little while before weaning time arrives it is 
a good plan to teach the lambs to eat some food 
that will take the place of the mother's milk better 
than the grass of the pasture. Get the flock into 
an inclosure, where they will be comfortable after 
they have filled on the grass in the morning and 
give them a light feeding of oats and wheat bran, 
equal parts, and then just at night feed them again 
and turn them out to pasture. The lambs will learn 
to eat the grain with the ewes. 

Taking Lambs from Mothers — After they have 
learned to eat the grain the time can be set for 
separating the ewes from the lambs. On the morn- 
ing of the day set, get the flock in earlier than 
usual, feed and hold until nearly time to turn out, 
when the ewes can be sorted out, the lambs fed 
and the ewes driven to a distant field out of hear- 
ing of the lambs. The lambs can be turned into 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP 1 85 

pasture where they will give their attention to feed- 
ing on the grass; and if taken in each day, fed a 
fairly liberal portion of grain, given access to all 
the water needed and plenty of grass to eat, they 
will make a constant growth at weaning time. If 
kept improving the wether lambs will soon be in 
condition to command a good price for the drover 
or feeder and the best ewes can be retained to in- 
crease the size of the breeding flock. 

SHEEP DURING THE LAMBING SEASON 

It is greatly important that lambs be strong 
and vigorous at birth. When they come delicate, 
it is difficult to carry them on without loss, and the 
extra labor entailed is very great. That they will 
not come large and strong is a foregone conclusion, 
unless the ewes have been properly fed, properly 
housed and properly exercised. 

Food for Breeding Ewes — In localities where the 
ground remains uncovered during much of the 
winter, fortunate are those flockmasters who have 
a pasture with a reasonably tough sod on which 
the sheep may graze. With grass in plentiful sup- 
ply, even though partially dead, the ewes will need 
but little else until the approach of the lambing 
season. 

Where the ground is deeply covered with snow, 
the best fodder that can be given to breeding ewes 
is clover or alfalfa hay. If this can be given only 
once a day, the other feed may consist of a good, 
finely grown corn stover, well-cured millet, or good 
oat straw. If hay or alfalfa are fed but once a 
day, it should be fed in the evening, as the sheep 
will eat the other fodder more readily in the morn- 
ing when they are hungry. Pea straw, well saved. 



1 86 FARM STOCK 

is also an excellent fodder for them. The same is 
true of peas and oats or vetches and oats grown 
together. 

When thus supplied with good fodder, they do 
not need much grain until toward the approach of 
the lambing season. They will be in better condi- 
tion, however, at the lambing time if they have 
been fed a small quantity of grain previously. No 
grain is more suitable for them than whole oats 
fed alone, or, what is better, along with a little bran 
or oil cake. Both bran and oil cake are not neces- 
sary, but they will do no harm if both are present- 
Field roots are excellent, but before the lambing 
season it is not necessary to feed more than two to 
three pounds a day. If roots cannot be had and 
corn silage can, it will be in order to feed silage 
at least once a day. When clover or alfalfa hay 
are fed either of these goes admirably with silage. 
The latter is a carbohydrate and the hay is a pro- 
tein food. When straw is fed as one of the feeds, 
what is left over answers nicely for bedding. As 
a rule, the aim should be to clean out daily the racks 
on which sheep are fed their fodder. 

Suitable Shelter — The housing for breeding ewes 
may be simple. It should possess two requisites. 
These are freedom from drafts and capability of 
protecting from storms. But in no instance should 
the quarters be confined. Usually the ewes should 
have perfect liberty of access to a protected yard on 
the sunny side of the shed. This yard ought to be 
well bedded. It is a fatal mistake to have sheep 
housed too warmly, even at night. They are not 
liable to suffer from the cold if protected from 
winds. 

Suitable Exercise — Sheep will take ample exer- 
cise if thev have the freedom of one or more fields 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP 187 

when the snow is not deep or entirely absent. It is 
when the snow is deep and they are unable to paw 
it off that they are in danger of becoming too slug- 
gish. The more highly they are fed the more slug- 
gish they are. To avoid this it may be necessary 
to put feed in a rack some distance away from the 
shed, and located, if possible, in a secluded and 
protected spot. If the snow is deep, clear away 
by using the snowplow and strew a little hay here 




A PAIR OF HAMPSHIRE DOWNS 

These healthy, vigorous sheep are looking into a bright 
future in this country. They are good feeders, possess good 
weight and give good account of themselves, wherever placed. 

and there along it. The ewes will soon find the 
way to the feed. They will make a pilgrimage to 
it daily if the food is enticing. 

Exercise Necessary — When the ewes do not take 
ample exercise, the lambs are lacking in vigor when 
they are born. When this happens the task of car- 
ing for them while they are young is difficult and 
the losses that occur will probably prove serious. 
After the lambs are born and on their feet, the 
ewes may be fed grain with much freedom. A 



1 88 FARM STOCK 

mixture, as of oats and barley or oats, bran and 
barley, will furnish a good grain supplement. Roots 
also may be fed with the utmost freedom. 

BREEDING EWES IN WINTER 

Every flock owner should carefully examine his 
flock in the fall, and if there are any lice or ticks 
on them, they should be dipped. Even if the 
weather is quite cold, dip them by all means. One 
can never afford to feed lice and ticks, and espe- 
cially he cannot when sheep and feed are as valu- 
able as they are this season. The water for dipping 
may be warmed some, then if the sheep are kept 
out of the wind in a reasonably warm place, they 
will not suffer. 

Some of the Best Feeds — For their feed in the 
line of roughage, there is nothing better or cheap- 
er than alfalfa or clover hay, bean straw and roots. 
If the ewes go into winter in good condition and 
have plenty of these feeds, they will need no grain 
until within a few weeks of lambing time. Even if 
one has only a fair amount of these feeds and gives 
them with corn stover and straw, the flock will 
usually do well. 

When one has not enough alfalfa, clover or pea- 
vine hay or bean straw to supply at least one good 
feed a day, some grain should be given to furnish 
a fair amount of protein. The ewe must have a 
certain amount of this kind of feed to properly 
nourish the foetus and grow her wool. Oats are 
splendid for this purpose, but in recent years they 
are very high in price. I have found gluten a very 
good feed to mix with silage or with the chopped 
roots. If one can get cull beans, a few of them 
are good. 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP 1 89 

It is very seldom with a fair sized flock that all 
the individuals feed well. Those that do not should 
be separated from the flock and be given special 
care. 

Keep Sheep Cool and Dry — It is not necessary 
that the sheep pens should be warm; in fact, it is 
better that they should not be, at least until lambing 
time. Quarters that are cool, well lighted and 
ventilated — with special emphasis on the ventilated 
— and will keep the feet and back of the sheep dry, 
are ideal. 

One of the greatest mistakes made with the 
breeding flock in the winter is that the sheep are 
not given enough exercise. I usually draw corn 
stover to a field that is to be plowed in the spring, 
and feed the sheep there at noon every day that is 
not stormy, or when the ground is soft. If you 
cannot feed this way, see that your ewes are ex- 
ercised in some way. You cannot have good, vig- 
orous sheep and lambs without it. 

Amount of Grain to Feed — The amount of grain 
and the length of time the flock should be grained 
before lambing depends upon the condition of the 
ewes, and whether you are having early or late 
lambs. If the lambs are to come early, the ewes 
should be in the pink of condition, or they will not 
be able to keep the lambs growing well until grass 
comes. On the other hand, Tf the lambs are to 
come late, but a short time before the mother is 
to go out to grass, she will require not nearly so 
much grain. 

Start Grain Ration Gradually — Whether they 
are to be fed little or much, great care should be 
taken in getting them on the grain ration. No 
farm animals are as apt to be injured by abrupt 
change of feed as are sheep. Feed small amounts 



190 FARM STOCK 

to begin with, and see to it that a few do not get the 
major portion of that. Increase the amount grad- 
ually and the sheep will be all right. Very many 
lambs are weakened before birth by the injudicious 
feeding of the mother. 

Silage has been condemned by many as a feed 
for breeding ewes, but I arn, satisfied, after several 
years' experience, that if one commences by feed- 
ing very little and increases the amount slowly, it 
is not only a safe but a splendid food. 

Give Plenty of Water — Sheep will get along and 
live a long time without water, but for them to do 
their best it is just as essential that they should be 
supplied with pure water, and have it as they want 
it, as for other animals. Feed is so scarce and 
high this season that many flocks will be underfed, 
their owners thinking that they are economizing 
by so doing. The results will be poor, light fleeces 
of wool, and a small, inferior lamb crop. Economy 
of this sort always makes men poorer instead of 
richer. Keep no more sheep than you can feed 
well. 

FEEDING PREGNANT EWES 

It is very essential that the rations supplied the 
ewe flock possess the quality to assist rapid and 
thorough assimilation. A narrow ration of wither 
roughage or grain is more apt to cause a sluggish 
condition throughout the digestive tract and ul- 
timately influence the development of the foetus. 
Food that can be readily acted upon by the diges- 
tive secretions and made available for immediate 
use is very desirable in the composition of a ration 
for pregnant ewes. The greater the variance in 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP I9I 

any well-balanced ration the more readily is it di- 
gested and transformed into available nourish- 
ment. 

Exclusive Roughage Ration Undesirable — Preg- 
nant ewes should never be confined to an exclusive 
roughage ration, though it may possess the neces- 
sary ingredients to comprise a well-balanced ration. 
Clover hay is one of the best roughages available 
for pregnant ewes, but under no conditions should 
they be limited to this one element of diet. If it 
is convenient, clover hay can be fed twice daily, 
say morning and evening, but for an intermediate 
feed, corn stover, bean pods or bright oat straw 
should be supplied. Under no conditions should 
wet, musty roughage of any kind be fed ewes in 
the advanced stage of pregnancy. 

Succulent Food — It is very important in the com- 
position of a roughage ration for the ewe flock at 
this time to include some succulent matter. Roots 
are beyond question the most succulent food avail- 
able for sheep. Many flockmasters make it a point 
to grow a few tons of roots to feed during the 
advanced stage of pregnancy. However, the flock- 
owner who has no roots at hand to feed must af- 
ford some other solution. Silage can be fed with 
excellent results at this time, although care must 
be exercised not to overfeed. I am feeding a part 
ration to my breeding ewes and they are doing 
finely. I remove the larger portion of the corn, 
thus reducing the danger of overfeeding on grain. 
It is not advisable to feed silage more than once 
daily to pregnant ewes. 

The Grain Food — The grain ration should be 
selected with considerable precaution, so that the 
right proportions can be computed. Select as wide 
a ration as possible. Do not feed too heavily upon 



192 FARM STOCK 

corn. I have found that a grain ration composed 
of three pounds of oats, one of linseed or oil cake r 
one of wheat bran and from two to three pounds 
of corn meal, depending upon the flesh condition 
of the ewes, makes a very excellent grain ration. If 
the ewes are thin in flesh the corn proportion of 
the ration may be slightly increased, never to ex- 
ceed the above proportion. The importance of 
plenty of clean, fresh water at this time cannot be 
overestimated, and salt should also be constantly 
before the flock. 

STOCK RAMS IN SUMMER 

AVhere but a small flock of sheep is kept and but 
one ram, there are no serious objections to allow- 
ing the ram to graze with the flock when the pas- 
tures are good, but should the flock be large and 
the rams many, it is different. : 

Several Rams in Separate Pasture — When sev- 
eral stock rams are kept they are given a small pas- 
ture by themselves. If they can be given a change 
of pasture occasionally, they are likely to do bet- 
ter but this is frequently found impracticable. As 
stock rams are usually grained somewhat heavily 
at the mating season, and as they are generally 
given considerable grain food during the winter, 
the aim should be to bring them through a portion 
of the summer, at least, without grain. 

This can usually be done when the grazing is 
plentiful, nutritious and succulent. The effect on 
the system is cooling. The digestion is less taxed, 
and the influence exerted is renovating. But when 
the season draws near for service, it may be neces- 
sary to feed grain to them again, that they may 
begin the season's service strong and vigorous. 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP I93 

Sale Rams — The management of sale rams, that 
is, of shearlings, may be different. With them 
growth is incomplete. It is necessary that they 
shall be in good flesh when sold. They should not 
only have good grazing, but it may be necessary to 
give them a certain proportion of grain through all 
the season. Of course, the amount should not be 
large nor the food stimulating and heating, as 
when corn is fed. There is probably no kind of 
grain better adapted for such feeding than oats, 
and, in some instances, the grazing may be so good 
that it is not necessary even to feed any grain. The 
feeding of the grain should be gauged by the condi- 
tion of the rams and the nature of the pasture. 

SHEAR SHEEP EARLY 

The season for shearing sheep is much affected 
by locality. There are climates in which two 
shearings would doubtless be better. The time* for 
shearing in the northern states, say north of par- 
allel 40 degrees, is April, as practiced now by the 
best shearers. Years ago, when washing preceded 
shearing, it was common to defer shearing to a 
later period. Sheep now are usually shorn without 
being washed. When the flock is much infested 
with ticks, the time of shearing should be advanced. 
But it may be necessary to confine shorn sheep when 
the shearing is done very early. 

The sheep-shearing machine is fast superseding 
the shears. So much more quickly and neatly does 
it do the work that it will pay to invest in one of 
these machines, even for a small flock of sheep. It 
is usually practicable to harness various kinds of 
power so as to run these machines, but when this 
may not be practicable they may be run by hand, 



194 FARM STOCK 

one person shearing the sheep and the other fur- 
nishing the power. 

The machines do excellent work. If any criti- 
cism is to be made of them on this score, it is to the 
effect that they leave the sheep, as it were, too bare. 
The danger of maiming the sheep by way of cut- 
ting the skin is less also than with the hand shears. 

Of course, shearing will still be done to some ex- 
tent with the shears. When so done, it is impor- 
tant that the shears be kept sharp. It is also 
important that they have a spring that works 
easily. Shears with a stiff spring work hard. 
Wherever done, the floor should be clean that the 
wool may be kept as free as possible from all ad- 
mixture with dirt and filth. 

When sheep and lambs are being fattened, it is 
important that the shearing be done early. The 
stimulating food that is being given to them 
causes more heat in the system than would other- 
wise be present. This becomes so serious as soon as 
the days become warm as to interfere with the 
gains of the sheep. The importance of promptness, 
therefore, in attending to this matter, is very con- 
siderable. Years ago, shearing was often deferred 
until some time in June. The suffering thus en- 
tailed must have been considerable. The sheep also 
frequently lost considerable quantities of wool 
through rubbing and in other ways. This, in a 
large flock, was a considerable item. There was 
also usually some loss from the soiling of the wool 
around the buttocks of the sheep when the pastures 
became succulent and abundant. 



CHAPTER XX. 

The Diseases of Sheep 

The diseases of sheep fall into two principal 
classes, those arising from exhaustion, run-down 
condition of the system and general debility; and 
those due to the presence of parasitic animals. 
There is no reasonable cause for the first class if 
the sheep have been properly fed, handled and cared 
for, but parasites are very common both on and 
in the sheep. Its thick wool and comparatively 
thin skin afford a most favorable lodging place 
and feeding ground for the class of vermin that 
dwell on the surface of the body; while of its 
internal organs, not only the stomach and the 
bowels, but the liver, brain and nostrils are the 
chosen habitat of various low forms of animal 
life. 

SOME COMMON DISEASES 

Colic — This is a disease similar to bloating in 
Cattle and is known by the swelling of the third 
stomach in the sheep by food, water or gases. 
The most frequent cause is due to feeding on green 
clover or alfalfa, especially when wet with rain or 
dew. It may arise, also, from indigestion or from 
musty food. The disease is readily recognized 
by the swelling of the belly on the left side, which 
appears while the animal is still feeding or shortly 
after. You will note, also, the oppressed condi- 
tion of breathing, the bowels are constipated, and 
the eyes are anxious and wild and there is much 

195 



196 



FARM STOCK 



pain. Some shepherds are not specially concerned 
so long as this swelling is on the left side only, 
but when it reaches the right side, the animal is 
in imminent danger. About the only help now 
is to use a trocar, or sharp pointed penknife, 
making an opening to the point where the accumu- 
lation occurs. The penetration should be kept 
open by the use of a goose quill or some hollow 




i 1 **^ 



TWISTED STOMACH WORMS 

A common attitude observed when sheep are afflicted 
with twisted stomach worms. The animal loses in flesh, and 
unless relief is found in time, dies. The parasite is shown 
in the illustration. 



tube. Kneading with the hands the swollen stomach 
is also helpful. 

Foot Rot — This is one of the most common dis- 
eases of American sheep and there have been few 
sections or few farms free from it. It is always 
contagious, due to a germ that harbors in the earth 
and grass. 

The forefeet are usually first attacked. Lame- 
ness is there noticed and soon becomes complete; 
the appetite becomes poor ; fever sets in and the 



THE DISEASES OF SHEEP 197 

animal dies from general exhaustion. The offen- 
sive odor of the true foot rot is so characteristic 
that once experienced you can use it as a certain 
guide thereafter in recognizing the disease. The 
old practice has been to pare the hoof so as to 
rid it of all this diseased portion. This gives tem- 
porary relief only. The best sort of treatment is 
to keep no animals with diseased feet on the farm, 
to move the sheep from one pasture to another 
and to frequently till and cultivate so as to have 
the land pure and wholesome and free from the 
disease. 

Constipation in Lambs — Lambs, especially those 
which are fed immoderately either on cow's milk 
or the milk of other ewes, are often liable to con- 
stipation. The bowels cease to act and the animal 
droops and after a while lies down. Once affected, 
there is little to do for the lamb. A change in 
food and some purgative or laxative are helpful. 

Diarrhoea in Lambs — This disease frequently 
attacks whole flocks on first feeding on green 
grass. It is usually of no danger, but when indi- 
vidual cases call for attention, treat on general 
principles, because it may be more than a simple 
loose condition of the bowels. Real diarrhoea is 
often fatal and the lambs must receive the closest 
attention. It may be due to exposure, some sud- 
den change in temperature, but is more likely due 
to improper food. The disease usually appears 
without warning, the lamb becomes languid, sad, 
keeping away from other lambs, and frequently 
lies down. The excrement is thin, whitish or 
greenish and in the later stages is quite watery 
and mixed with mucus and blood. 

The first thing to do in treating this trouble is to 
change the food. It is not a bad idea to do that 



I98 FARM STOCK 

even though the food does not seem to be the matter 
in fault. If the disease seems to be passing through 
the flock, it is wise to remove all the healthy in- 
dividuals from the infested quarters, placing them 
elsewhere. An immediate remedy is the use of 
the white of an egg beaten in water, then mixed in 
warm milk and so given. 

Intestinal Worms — Sheep are liable to be in- 
fested with a number of varieties of intestinal 
worms, such as tape worms, thread worms and 
round worms. The symptoms these produce are 
very obscure and not often manifest, for the most 
healthy looking sheep when slaughtered often show 
the presence of these parasites in the stomach and 
the intestines. But, of course, the best results can- 
not be secured when present, and if they can be 
gotten rid of, it ought to be done. In many cases, 
the sheep show a dizziness, often staggering and 
falling, and a general impairment of the sight. The 
best way is to consult your veterinarian for some 
treatment so that all trouble in this direction may 
be removed. 

Scab — This is a contagious disease of the skin 
and is due to a parasite in or upon the skin. There 
are different forms of scab, but each kind causes 
itchiness — the most common symptom. Whenever 
you see an animal presenting a very ragged appear- 
ance, bare spots on the different parts of the body, 
with tufts of wool pulled out, and upon examina- 
tion you find reddish pimples, you may feel pretty 
certain that the insect that causes the scab is 
present. Any sort of dip that is now on the market 
will remove this trouble. In the large sheep-grow- 
ing districts, dipping plants are maintained by in- 
individual growers or by small stock companies. In 
this way frequent dipping is possible and takes 



THE DISEASES OF SHEEP 



199 



care of the work very rapidly. Even the small 
farm, with a few sheep, ought to have a small 
dipping plant. A little work, a little cement and 
boards for fencing purposes are all that are neces- 
sary. * 

Head Scab — The attacks of this mite are largely 
confined to the head. You will often notice the 
eyes, ears and neck affected also. The mites bore 




SHEEP BOTS 
The arrow shows location of grubs. 



under the skin where not much hair is found, caus- 
ing the formation of little scabs and blotches. The 
crusts may be removed by rubbing with oil and 
then applying any of the clips commonly used in 
the treatment of scab. 

Botfly — This is a serious trouble and is due to 
the sheep botfly that lays its eggs in the ears and 
nostrils, which upon hatching, develop into grubs. 



200 FARM STOCK 

These penetrate deeply into the nasal cavity. When 
completing their life as a grub, they fall out, come 
out of the nose, go down into the ground for a 
short while, after which they come out as a botfly. 
Grubs are very disagreeable and painful when in 
the nostrils and sometimes go so far into the head 
that they never get out. 

It is difficult to treat this trouble, the best way 
being to dislodge the grubs by the use of a feather 
dipped in turpentine and inserted into the nostrils. 
When tar is smeared up the nostrils of the sheep at 
the time the botfly is most active, the difficulty can 
be kept down to a minimum. Some sheep raisers 
bore holes in logs ; these holes are smeared with tar 
and filled with salt. Sheep in getting- the salt, 
therefore, keep their noses smeared with tar. 

The Stomach Worm — This is a parasite that is 
found in the stomach and is a very serious disease 
in the eastern part of the country. Lambs are 
particularly troubled. When afflicted with stomach 
worms, they have digestive disturbances and diar- 
rhcea. The remedy lies more in the nature of 
prevention than cure. Worms are harbored in 
moist pastures and in this way the animals take 
them into their stomachs. Many remedies are pro- 
posed and it is best to see your veterinarian for 
treating the disease. 

Lung Worms — These attack the small air cells 
of the lungs, causing a sort of pneumonia. A 
hacking cough is an indication of the trouble. Of 
course, no medicinal treatment can be given. The 
way to prevent the disease is to seek new pastures 
that are free of the worms. Pastures that have 
not had sheep on them for two or three years are 
free. The old pasture should be plowed up so 
as to completely rid the land of the trouble. 



CHAPTER XXL 
Swine 

The many breeds of hogs have all descended 
from the wild hog that once roamed over Europe, 
Asia and Africa. In evolving from the wild to 
the tame animal, many changes took place. The 
long snout gradually shortened, the skull widened 
between the eyes, the neck lost some of its sharp- 
ness and the legs became short and straight. But 
the most marvelous change was the laying on of 
meat and fat. There's where man came in and 
helped out. He found use for the meat and lard. 
He cultivated the tendency to develop these pro- 
ducts and after a few centuries the modern hog 
was the result. 

The wild hog possesses a head that is large, 
bony and coarse. The large jaw carries the heavy 
tusks that inflict the severest wounds. The neck 
is long and muscular and the loins broad and 
strong. In every way he is a foe fearful to com- 
bat when attacked by an enemy of any sort. He 
likes places that are moist, rather well concealed 
by brush growth, where he can get roots and fruits 
and succulent food, and even has a strong appe- 
tite for worms and snakes and flesh of any kind. 
Many of these characteristics have been lost in 
the modern domestic pig. Our present-day hogs 
^may degenerate and become wild and fierce, yet 
they never, to the fullest extent, take to the habits 
of their ancestors. 

The Mortgage Lifter — The hog has been called 
the "mortgage lifter." He reaches, when properly 
fed and managed, maturity at an early age. He 

201 



202 FARM STOCK 

uses up a large quantity of food for which he 
makes good returns. He is at his best when plenty 
of green food, supplemented with various kinds 
of grains, is provided for his use. Clover or al- 
falfa and corn are the foods most desired by him, 
and when these are furnished he makes the best 
reckoning. 




THE MODERN HOG 

Just nose enough for breathing, ears enough for hearing, 
niouth enough for eating — and most of the rest is meat. 

The hog is one of the most important animals 
on the farm for meat and money, and no farm 
is complete, be it large or small, unless there be 
a number of these animals to assist in the moderu 
business of farming. 



CHAPTER XXII. 

Breeds of Swine 

Poland-China — This hog originated in the 
Miami valley of Ohio, in Butler and Warren coun- 
ties, from miscellaneous crosses of Big China, 
Poland, Bylield, Berkshire and Irish Grazier breeds 
on the common stock. 




A WELL-BRED POLAND-CHINA BOAR 

An Ohio invention to make pork. And in this connection let 
it be said there is no better money maker in all the world. 



In the early days the breed was variously known 
under such names as Butler County, Warren 
County, Poland, Dick's Crick, Magie, Moore, etc., 
and it was not until the year 1872 that the name 
"Poland-China" was permanently adopted. 



203 



204 FARM STOCK 

Further improvement of the breed occurred in 
Illinois and Iowa and they now constitute the most 
popular breed in the corn belt. The type is now 
firmly fixed and the breed undoubtedly pure. It 
is perhaps the best suited of all breeds to quickly 
convert corn into pork. It will stand close con- 
finement and heavy feeding perhaps better than any 
other of the large breeds, but it is not as good a 
rustler and able to take care of itself as many other 
breeds. The sows are not as fertile as the Berk- 
shire, though some strains are excellent breeders. 

The Poland-China is a black hog, with six white 
points : feet, face, and tip of tail. The face is 
slightly dished and the ear broken about one- fourth 
to one-third from the tip. The breed is character- 
ized by early maturity and nearly perfect form of 
the lard hog type, being very blocky and compact. 
Boars at two years of age should weigh 600 pounds 
and sows 500 pounds. 

Berkshire — The Berkshire breed is of English 
origin and stands next to the Poland-China in popu- 
larity in America. It was first brought to this 
country about 1830. It is a black hog with six 
white points, marked much like the Poland-China, 
white on feet, face, and tip of tail. The face is 
dished, ears short and erect or slightly inclined 
forward, the neck very short and the back arched. 
The Berkshire breed in England is largely used 
for bacon; under American influences it has de- 
veloped into the lard hog type. The hogs are of 
about the same size as the Poland-Chinas and 
possess about the same qualities. Good hogs weigh 
240 to 300 pounds nine to 12 months of age, and 
mature hogs, 500 to 600 pounds. The specially 
good points in regard to the Berkshire are its early 
maturity, good grazing qualities, adaptability and 



BREEDS OF SWINE 



205 



excellent carcass. It is one of the most popular 
breeds in the South. 

Duroc-Jersey — This is an American developed 
breed. Its origin, however, is not positively known. 
Red hogs were known to exist in New York as 
early as 1823 and in Connecticut in 1830. Red 
hogs were imported into New Jersey from Spain 
in 1832 and in 1850 into Kentucky from either 
Spain or Portugal. In New Jersey they were first 
advertised in 1870 as Jersey Reds. In New York 
the breed was called Duroc, after a noted stallion, 




DUROC-JERSEY BOAR 
A living factory that makes pork, lard and bacon. 

as early as 1823. These two families of hogs 
possessed like characteristics and were undoubtedly 
of the same origin. 

In form, the Duroc- Jerseys closely resemble the 
Poland-Chinas, but are red in color. The standard 
is a cherry red without spots. It is a coarser breed 
than either the Poland-China or Berkshire, with 
lop ears and numerous wrinkles and creases about 
the back and hind quarters. 

The breed is chiefly noted for its great fecundity 
and remarkably good grazing powers. At six 




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BREEDS OF SWINE 207 

months of age, good specimens of the breed 
should weigh 150 pounds, and at eight or nine 
months, the average should be 275 pounds. Mature 
hogs in good condition average 500 to 600 pounds 
in weight. The breed is of a quiet disposition, 
easily handled, have vigorous appetites and fatten 
rapidly. 

They are one of the best of all breeds for the 
South, as they never sun scald. The breed is most 
popular in New Jersey, Pennsylvania and New 




A MODERN CHESTER WHITE 

The Chester White has held its own throughout all the past 
years. It is a very popular breed in the eastern states. 

York, and is rapidly gaining favor throughout the 
South and West. 

Chester White — This breed originated in Chester 
county, Pennsylvania. It appears that a sea cap- 
tain, James JefTeries by name, imported a pair of 
white hogs from Bedfordshire, England, in 181 1. 
This stock, in connection with some Big Chinas, 
was used on the native stock of the country, mostly 
descendants of the Large Yorkshire breed, and 
formed the foundation stock of the present Chester 
White breed. This hog is the most popular of the 
white breeds, and its blood makes up a large 



208 FARM STOCK 

portion of the mixed black and white grades seen 
throughout the country. 

The breed is white and the hogs among the 
largest, if not the largest, in the country, weighing 
at maturity 600 to 700 pounds and dressing 175 
to 256 pounds when eight to nine months old. 
The hogs are of a quiet disposition, easy fatteners, 
with good grazing qualities. The sows are pro- 
lific, but are inclined to a sullen disposition at pig- 
ging time. Like all other white breeds, the Chesters 

: ' ■ m 




TWO AVERAGE YORKSHIRES 

While an old breed, the Yorkshire is not well known in 
this country. It is, however, especially esteemed for its 
bacon qualities. 

are not well adapted to southern conditions be- 
cause of injury from sun scalds, mange and other 
troubles. The Chester White, while a large hog, 
has strong, fine bones and a big, lengthy body. 
The face is slightly dished, snout fine and long, 
the ears pendant, jowl rather light, neck short 
and deep. 

The Ohio, or Todd's Improved Chester White, 
has for its foundation Chester County White hogs, 
crossed with a hog owned by S. H. Todd, which 



BREEDS OF SWINE 209 

traced its ancestry back to the Norfolk Thin breeds, 
mixed with Normandy blood. In 1865 !his hog 
was crossed with Chester Whites from which 
spring the Improved Chester White. 

Yorkshire — This is an old English white breed. 
Its blood has entered into the formation of prac- 
tically all modern breeds either of English or 
American origin. There are three breeds, the Im- 
proved Large Yorkshires, or the Large Whites, the 
Medium Yorkshires or Medium Whites, and the 
Small Yorkshires or Small Whites. 

These differ chiefly in matter of size. The Small 
Yorkshires owe their refinement to a cross with 
a Chinese hog, while the Medium Yorkshire is the 
outcome of the cross between the Large and Small 
Yorkshire. The old Yorkshire is long in head; 
body and legs large, with coarse, erect ears, with 
a strong coat of white hair. There are usually a 
few pale blue spots in the skin, but the hair on 
these is white. They are prolific, but slow in ma- 
turing. 

This old type has been considerably improved, 
and the new form, under the name of Large York- 
shires, has been recently imported into Canada 
and the L T nited States in comparatively large num- 
bers; Large Yorkshires of the old type have ex- 
isted in the United States for nearly a hundred 
years. 

The Large Improved Yorkshire is fully as large 
as the Chester White, and represents the longest 
breed of hogs we have, though they are not as 
broad as the Chester Whites and do not generally 
grow to such heavy weights. They are especially 
suitable for the production of bacon, have good, 
strong legs, are excellent rustlers, impart a vigor- 
ous constitution to their offspring and are of great 



2IO FARM STOCK 

value in crossing on over-refined stock. The sows 
are prolific and good mothers, being probably 
superior in these respects to the Chester Whites. 

As compared with the Chester Whites, they have 
somewhat longer heads, with face dished, more 
pronounced jowl, longer sides, with less girth in 
proportion to length, and are slightly larger in limb, 
and rather more active. 




SMALL YORKSHIRE SOW AND LITTER 

This breed, while not well known, is highly prized by those 
who know it best. It has a place in American farming. 

The Small Yorkshire is finer in quality than the 
Improved, presents greater symmetry and is much 
more compact in form; they mature much earlier, 
but do not attain as heavy weight as the Large 
Yorkshires. 

Tamworth — These pigs originated in England, 
and have been bred for many years, being one of 
the oldest and purest breeds of Britain. The blood 



BREEDS OF SWINE 211 

of other breeds has been used to but very little ex- 
tent in the improvement of the Tamworth. The 
Tamworth resembles the Large Improved York- 
shire, being practically equal to it in size. 

They are a long-bodied, long-legged hog, of a 
red or chestnut color, and especially suitable for 
the production of bacon. They possess great vigor 
and stamina, and impart these characteristics when 
crossed upon other breeds. They mature fully as 
rapidly as the larger breed of lard hogs when 
heavily fed. They are the equal of any breeds in 
grazing qualities and give good results under a 
forced feeding. The proportion of lean to fat 
meat in this breed is unusually high, which makes 
the pork and bacon produced of superior quality. 
No breed surpasses them in prolificacy. 

Cheshire — This white breed of swine originated 
in Jefferson county, New York. It is the outcome 
of crosses between Large Improved Yorkshires 
and Suffolk breeds upon native white hogs. They 
are smaller than any of the breeds described above, 
and possess early maturing qualities in a marked 
degree. They have fair grazing qualities, are 
docile, rank high among the medium breeds as 
bacon producers, and are valuable in crossing upon 
the more slowly maturing breeds for the purpose 
of refining the bone and increasing early maturity. 
They considerably resemble the Berkshire in gen- 
eral appearance except that they are white, are 
not quite so heavy, and are more refined in frame 
and bone. The ears are small, fine, and erect and 
in old animals point slightly forward. 

Hampshire or Thin-Rind — This hog traces its 
origin to Hampshire, England. It was introduced 
in Kentucky as early as 1825, where it has been 
carefully bred ever since. These hogs are black 



212 FARM STOCK 

in color, with a band 4 to. 12 inches wide en- 
circling the body and including the front legs, 
which are also white. This gives the breed a 
striking appearance. The head is small, ears of 
medium length, slightly inclined forward, light 
jowls, broad back of nearly uniform width, heavy 
hams, legs well set apart, active and muscular. The 
sows are prolific and uniformly good mothers. 
The breed has excellent grazing qualities and easily 
attains a weight of 300 pounds at 12 months of age, 

In crossing, they transmit their qualities and 
markings with great uniformity. The breed is 
comparatively new, but owing to its handsome ap- 
pearance and other good qualities is very likely 
to increase in popularity. 

Suffolk — The hog known as the Suffolk is a 
black hog, while the hog called Suffolk in America 
refers to a white breed. Good authorities, how- 
ever, consider the American strain of white pig 
as merely the Little Yorkshire under another name. 
The Black Suffolk is one of the smaller breed of 
hogs. The head is short, snout turned up similar 
to that of the Small Yorkshires, body deep, ribs 
well sprung, with short, small bones and legs. The 
breed possess early maturing qualities in a 
marked degree, is medium in size, lays on fat 
rapidly and dresses out a high percentage of meat. 

What is known as the American or White Suf- 
folk is a hog somewhat similar in general appear- 
ance except that the color is yellowish white, per- 
fectly free from spots or other colors. In general, it 
may be described as a short-legged pig, with a mod- 
erately long body, but wide and deep, and a much- 
dished head. It is adapted to intensive conditions 
where grazing lands are scarce and expensive and 
for producing a good quality of quickly grown pork. 



CHAPTER XXIII 
Feeding Hogs 

The first food of the pig is milk. After a short 
time, additional food will be advisable in order to 
secure the most rapid growth. The best gains are 
always secured in the early life of the animal; 
therefore, skimmed milk, kitchen slops and grain 
should be given as soon as young pigs can be in- 
duced to eat. This ought to be continued as long 
as available, even until fattening, if possible. Milk 
is naturally a nitrogenous food. It contains a large 
quantity of the muscle-making materials in pro- 
portion to the fat-making materials. As the pig 
grows older, its rations should be widened, until 
the protein in proportion to the food and carbo- 
hydrates is about one to six or seven. Corn is a 
great finishing food and it has a nutritive ratio of 
about one to nine. From this it will be seen that 
there is too much of the fat elements in proportion 
to the muscle elements; consequently even during 
the fattening period, some additional nitrogenous 
food is advisable. Feeding in early life should be 
for the purpose of developing bones, muscles and 
vital organs. This gives a foundation for pro- 
fitable forcing later. 

Many feeding experiments have been made in 
all parts of the country that show that an exclusive 
grain ration made up of corn is never satisfactory. 
Not only. are the gains not so good as when mixed 
ration is fed, but the carcass is less desirable be- 
cause of the large amount of fat located in all 
edible parts of the body. 

213 



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FEEDING HOGS 21 5 

Pasture for Pigs — In the early stages of pig 
feeding, milk is very desirable and should be in- 
cluded whenever possible. Where milk is not 
available, slops made of middlings and shorts are 
to be preferred to most other milk products. But 
the great opportunity for making a profit out of 
pigs, especially when prices are low and grain prod- 
ucts are high, is through the use of clover and 
alfalfa pasture crops. As the subject of pig feed- 
ing is studied, more conclusive becomes the evi- 
dence that alfalfa and clover pasturage go hand in 
hand with pork production. 

It should be the swine raiser's aim as much to 
grow these two wonderful forage crops as it is 
to grow the hog itself; consequently in the great 
alfalfa regions where alfalfa has come into its 
own, it is so greatly appreciated that thousands 
of acres are annually being given over to this crop. 
In the eastern sections of the country, alfalfa is 
less popular and less known because of the difficulty 
in securing a stand and subsequent success with 
the crop. The fault, however, does not lie with 
the alfalfa crop. It is due to the fact that the 
farmer has not yet learned how to grow alfalfa on 
his particular soil in his immediate section and 
under his climatic conditions. Therefore, experi- 
mentation is in order for him so that he may learn 
the essential steps to take to get a successful stand. 

Hogs can be turned into the alfalfa field early 
in the spring, and if the acreage is large in pro- 
portion to the number, they can be continued in 
the alfalfa throughout the season until frost comes 
again. The tramping will not hurt the crop nor 
will the feeding of swine impair the feeding qual- 
ity of the alfalfa when made into hay. When the 
hogs are pastured in a large field, a small part of 



21 6 FARM STOCK 

the field can be cut, to be followed a week later by 
another part, and so on until the field has been 
cut over. In this way there is a new growth of 
alfalfa on at all times, giving the pigs just the sort 
of pasture they desire. But alfalfa is rich in 
protein, or nitrogenous elements, and hence the 
addition of corn while running on the pasture is 
advisable, especially if early maturity is desired. By 
turning young pigs early on alfalfa, supplying 
them with a daily small feed of corn will bring 
them within six or seven months to weigh 250 
pounds. 

With corn at 50 cents a bushel and hogs at four 
cents per pound, live weight, considerable profit 
is secured where alfalfa, corn and pigs are com- 
bined as a phase of the farm business. 

The alfalfa pasture is just the right sort of food 
for brood sows, stock hogs and other store stock. 
During the winter season, alfalfa hay or clover 
hay can be used in the dried stage as furnishing a 
large part of the ration and providing those ele- 
ments essential for growth, thrift and lean meat. 

The abundant supply of wood ashes and salt to 
which hogs may have constant access is an essential 
in hog raising that should never be neglected. 
Ground bone, charcoal, soft coal, are also desirable, 
and their use in hog feeding should not be denied. 
Where ground bone and ashes are constantly at 
hand, pigs mature better, have stronger bones and 
better health. This fact has been brought out by 
frequent tests and is now a part of good swine 
management over every part of the country. 

Cooked and Uncooked Food — Much has been 
said as to the value of cooked feeds, but the fact 
remains that cooking is expensive and in those 
cases where better results have been secured, as 



FEEDING HOGS 217 

a result of cooking, the cost and expense have been 
greater than the increase would warrant. Conse- 
quently, the greater number of hogs will be raised 
and fattened without having received cooked feeds. 

Whole and Ground Grains — While grinding in- 
creases the value of the common mass of feed, 
such as corn, peas and other grains, it still remains 
a question whether grinding shall be practiced, be- 
cause of the extra expense. In round numbers, 
from 10 to 15 per cent cheaper gains will be made 
from ground food than from unground food. If a 
farmer owns his own grinding mill, he can ordi- 
narily grind his feed at a cost that will be less than 
the extra returns through the use of ground food. 
Hence, it will be to his advantage to feed ground 
corn. If, however, he is obliged to haul his corn 
some distance to the mill, pay toll for the grinding, 
then return it to his farm, it is a question if the 
extra cost will not more than use up the additional 
returns. It is very likely that, all things consid- 
ered, a great part of the feed will continue to be 
used in the unground state. 

Wet or Dry Feed — The facts as to the feeding 
of grain either wet or dry are still conflicting. 
Many tests have been made, in some cases in favor 
of the wet feed and in others of dry feed. The 
weight of evidence seems, however, to be that it 
is desirable and advantageous to soak grains for 
hogs, but not to cook them. On the average, this 
advantage is from 5 to 10 per cent. 

Different Feeds — Among the roughage mate- 
rials may be mentioned alfalfa and clover, first. 
After them come oats and peas, sorghum, cowpeas, 
soy beans and green corn. The growing practice 
of hogging-off corn fields is warranted by the 
facts. Tests show that there are not only as good 



2l8 FARM STOCK 

gains made by hogging-off as when fed the corn 
husked or snapped, but there is a saving of the 
labor in cutting and husking the corn. In my 
judgment, a larger and larger area will each year 
be given over to hogs to hog-off. The practice 
extends now from Ohio to Minnesota and the repe- 
tition of the tests, especially by practical farmers, 
warrant the conclusion that this practice has come 
to stay. 

The leading grains used in feeding hogs may be 
mentioned as follows : 

Corn — Of course, this is the cheapest and most 
satisfactory grain to be fed. It is universally used 
for finishing off hogs. As has been pointed out, 
it should not be fed, however, to young and grow- 
ing hogs except in connection with other foods, 
like tankage, middlings, shorts or some other 
nitrogenous feeding stuff. 

Middlings and Shorts are largely used for mix- 
ing with other hog feeds and one or both is com- 
monly employed for the purpose of making swill 
or slops. 

Tankage is growing into favor, not only to be 
used for feeding young and growing hogs, but in 
fattening pigs as well. About one part of tankage 
to eight or ten parts of corn seems to be the right 
proportion to give. Many tests have been made 
and they invariably show not only greater gains 
when tankage is fed in conjunction with corn, 
but that these gains have been made at a far less 
cost than on the exclusive corn diet. 

Almost every kind of grain feed finds favor in 
the hog lot. In the South, peanuts prove satisfac- 
tory when used as a pasture crop, especially when 
sweet potatoes or some more carbonaceous food 
is fed in connection with them. 



FEEDING HOGS 2IQ 

Peas are a very desirable food, but their feed- 
ing value is hardly in keeping with the commercial 
price. 

Cottonseed Meal has been fed to pigs, but with 
poor success. For some unexplained reason, it 
is injurious. While tests have been made showing 
that cottonseed meal may be fed with profit and 
satisfaction, still in the great majority of cases, 
death sooner or later comes; consequently at this 
stage of feeding-knowledge, cottonseed meal is not 
to be recommended as a suitable food for swine. 

Linseed Meal, on the other hand, can be fed with 
impunity and profit. It should be fed, however, 
in connection with other grains. One part of lin- 
seed meal to ten parts of corn makes a very desir- 
able food. 

Wheat, Rye and Barley are all satisfactory hog- 
foods, but on account of price, they do not often 
fall into the class of economical hog foods. There 
are so many other foodstuffs unavailable for use 
by man as to throw these grains out of the feeds 
available for hogs. 

All the by-products of the dairy are valuable 
for hogs, such as skimmed milk, buttermilk and 
whey; fed in connection with the grains and al- 
falfa and clover, the greatest profit and ease are 
secured in the feeding and management of this 
class of live stock. 



CHAPTER XXIV 
The Care and Management of Swine 

While the hog is accustomed to bad treatment, 
he will be a far better money-making help on the 
farm if he receives such attention as is given to 
other farm stock. There is just as much reason 
for tidiness in hog pens as in the houses and barns 
of other live stock. It is not stating the case too 
strongly to say that the many infectious diseases, 
now so fatal to hogs, are in most cases due to un- 
sanitary quarters. Care and attention in this di- 
rection will bring better returns than when applied 
elsewhere. 

The small pens ought to be abandoned as much 
as possible, and where necessary, cement floors be 
provided, or else open pens outside of the barns 
that they may be easily plowed and seeded to some 
cultivated or forage crop. 

The practice of having many small run lots — a 
rod or two up to any width and long enough to 
be tilled by means of horse power — has solved the 
problem very satisfactorily to the health of the 
animal and to the owner, because of the additional 
profit secured by rapid growth and the minimizing 
of labor and expense. 

As to general care, let the hog be provided with 
water, clean quarters and shelter from cold or heat. 
In the management of the hog in general, let good 
pasturage be considered as essential, in conjunc- 
tion with which should be given grain foods that 
maturity may be reached at the earliest possible 
age. Slops and grain food are not enough for 

220 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE 



221 



the most economical production of pork. Hogs 
need green food; they need a variety of foods; 
they need fresh water and sanitary quarters, just 
as other stock of the farm. 



WHEN THE SOW HAS PIGS 

When possible, provision should be made during 





i- 



• 



THE INTERIOR OF A MODERN HOG BARN 

Iron and cement are now taking the place of mud and 
filth in housing hogs. Everything about this hog barn is 
"cleanly and wholesome. If rightly cared for, there is no 
show for disease. 

the summer to give the sow the run of a small grass 
plot or field where she will be free from annoyance 
from other farm stock. In the winter and early 
spring, the barnyard may be used for this purpose, 
when the cows and horses are not at liberty. 

The sow, while nursing, requires liberal feeding, 
as the rearing of a large litter is a severe drain on 
the system. The following foods are especially 
good: skim milk, buttermilk, bran and shorts, 



222 FARM STOCK 

ground oats, wheat and barley, with a liberal sup- 
ply of boiled roots and a grass run if possible. 

Teach Little Pigs to Drink — With a little care 
and attention the little pigs can be taught to drink 
a little at from two to three weeks old and thus 
lessen the demand on the dam. The best method is 
to put a shallow, flat-bottomed trough or dish in a 
small inclosure in one corner of the pen, allowing 
the young pigs access to it at will, but where the 
sow cannot reach it. For the first day or two a 
little fresh milk might be used, afterward changing 
to sweet skim milk warmed to blood heat. 

Good sows are often ruined at weaning time by 
the pigs being suddenly taken away while there is 
still a large flow of milk. This will tend to pro- 
duce inflammation or garget, and a number of blind 
teats may be the result. The plan of removing all 
the pigs with the exception of one or two is also 
objectionable. It is a sudden check tc the ones re- 
moved and the remainder will not, as a rule, take 
all the milk, besides running the risk of spoiling 
the sow. 

Feed the sow a spare diet, giving such foods as 
a little dry grain, raw potatoes, etc., which will 
tend to arrest the secretion of milk. 

WEANING PIGS 

The weaning season is more or less critical with 
young swine. In many instances they receive a 
setback at that time, which means loss in growth. 
The manner of the weaning is important, as well 
as the time of the same. When young pigs have 
learned to take slop freely, made of shorts and skim 
milk, they are being made ready for weanin^ with- 
out a serious check to their growth. Such pigs may 
be weaned, if necessary, at the age of eight weeks. 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE 223 

If they cannot be given skim milk, it is better 
[for the pigs if they can remain longer on the dam. 
Iln such instances, they will fare better if they can 
take nourishment from the dam until ten weeks old. 
In no case should they be weaned until they can 
take food freely apart from the dam. Much care 
should be exercised to furnish them with those 
kinds of food that will promote good growth. 

PIGS FROM WEANING UNTIL FATTENING 

As soon as young pigs are weaned, they must be 
kept entirely away from the dam until she ceases to 
secrete milk, but not necessarily for a longer period. 
Give them access to a good pasture in the day, and 
meal in addition, morning and evening, until the 
fattening period arrives. The amount of meal fed 
will, to some extent, depend upon the character of 
the pasture, but it should be enough to secure good 
growth. The meal portion of the ration should be 
of a nitrogenous character. When fed in connec- 
tion with milk, a less quantity can be given and the 
meal can be more of the carbonaceous feed like 
corn. 

Pastures for Store Pigs include rye, blue grass, 
alfalfa, clover, barley and oats, rape and soy beans. 
Winter rye is ready before any other kind of pas- 
ture, and it may be made to last a long time when 
cropped closely. Bluegrass, nearly as early as rye, 
furnishes good pasture, but soon gets too dry and 
woody. Alfalfa, where it grows well, w r ill furnisr. 
pasture for swine during the greater portion of the 
growing season. Common red clover is ready 
fourth in point of time, and when properly man- 
aged will furnish good pasture much of the season. 
In the absence of clover, barley and oats, or peas 



224 



FARM STOCK 



and oats, will furnish a good pasture. The Dwarf 
Essex rape, sown early and eaten off when fairly 
grown, will furnish excellent pasture for store pigs 
from the middle of June until freezing-up season, 
but to accomplish this it must be sown at successive 
periods. Soy beans and cowpeas furnish grazing 
when the grain is nearing maturity and somewhat 
later in the season. 




CHESTER WHITES IN A PORTABLE PEN 

This breed makes good use of pa3tures, is especially- 
popular when dressed and sold in local markets. The port- 
able pen for outside feeding should take the place of the 
stationary, filthy feeding lot. 



Green Foods — In addition to pastures, certain 
green crops may be grown with much advantage 
for store pigs, such as peas, sweet corn, squashes 
and mangels. They are to be fed to supplement 
the pastures and also the meal part of the ration. 
Store pigs will make a substantial growth when 
gleaning among wheat stubbles, for a time at least, 



CARE AXD MANAGEMENT OF SWINE 225 

providing they have been given access to the stub- 
bles soon after the wheat has been cut. When thus 
engaged they do not require much additional food. 
If clover has been sown in the spring, no grain w T ill 
be required. 

When store pigs are to be reared in the winter, 
the aim should be to have them farrowed early in 
the season, that they may be considerably advanced 
in growth when the winter sets in. The pens must 
be warm, well lighted and dry, and the pigs should 
be allowed some exercise on fine days. The food 
may be essentially the same as that given in sum- 
mer, except that roots only, or clover, or alfalfa 
can be given in lieu of the green food of summer. 
When practicable, the food should be steamed, 
hence it can be, and should be, fed warm. The pigs 
usually bring a better price when sold before the 
season for grass pasturing. For various reasons 
there is more hazard in rearing autumn than spring 
litters, but with due preparation and due care such 
litters may be profitably reared. 

CARE OF SOW AND PIGS 

Sows should be mated ten months to a year old, 
according to growth. Breeders differ with regard 
to the length of time the boar and sow should be 
together, but I prefer to leave them in each other's 
society about a day. 

The hog house should be of sufficient height to 
clear the sow's back and necessitate short turning. 
If the period of birth occurs in the winter, the house 
cannot be made too warm. If possible, have a yard 
for the sow outside the pen. It will not only give 
her contentment, but exercise, thereby preventing 
the accumulation of flesh, which is a detriment to 



226 FARM STOCK 

the coming brood. It also develops bone and 
muscle and imparts to the offspring vigorous con- 
stitutions. Feed at this period with light, tasty 
food, such as middlings, bran and stale bread. 

Care at the Time of Birth — If the sow's house is 
comfortable this is about the only precaution nec- 
essary. Give just bedding enough to lie upon. It 
is a good plan to chop it up in the fodder cutter. 
The sow is inclined to form her bed for her nest, 
just her own size. The tottering little fellows fall 
under her as she rises. When she again lies down 
they are crushed. The best of mothers are liable 
to do this. After keeping the bed level for two or 




A GOOD HOG TROUGH 

A feeding place like this provides cleanliness, stability; and 
the trough is unbreakable. 

three days, the pigs get strength and this danger 
passes away. 

Food and Care After Birth — Feed moderately 
with tasty food for two or three days, when the 
milk will come in full flow. Then gradually open 
your grain bins and cribs and give her a variety of 
heavy feed, accompanied by milk if possible, watch- 
ing all the time for signs of clogging. At the first 
symptoms restrict the feed. Do no.t forget to give 
some whole corn, as she will nibble at that at odd 
times. 

Care of Pigs — The pigs will not need much care 
for about a week or ten days. At the end of that 
time they will begin to emerge from the pen. At 
that time place some tasty food, milk and broken 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE 227 

crackers at their door, sheltered from dogs and cats, 
and you will be surprised how soon they will sample 
it. In a few days they will come out at your ap- 
proach. By feeding from that time on until selling 
time, you. will increase their weight about one-third 
and they will sell all around your neighbors' who 
do not "bother." 

FEEDING SKIM MILK 

The feeding of skim milk to swine is but im- 
perfectly understood by many of those who feed it. 
The following may be said with reference thereto : 
The aim should be to feed the milk as soon as it is 
possible to do so after it has been obtained, as, es- 
pecially in cold weather, it is a distinct advantage 
to feed it with the animal heat in it. No better 
food can be given to young swine, aside from the 
milk of the dam, while they are yet unweaned. At 
such a time they will turn to good advantage all 
the skim milk that they will consume. 

Subsequently to the growing period they will turn 
to the best advantage not more than, say, four 
pounds of skim milk to one pound of grain, when 
they do not have any grazing. When furnished 
with grazing and grain, not more than three pounds 
would be needed to one pound of grain. Much 
more may be fed, but the relative profit will not 
be so great. Not more than four or five pounds to 
one pound of grain should be fed to swine that are 
being fattened. Brood sows can turn to good ac- 
count large quantities of skim milk, but not to 
such good account as the young swine that nurse 
them. It is correct to say that the younger the 
swine to which the skim milk is fed, the better will 
be the return from feeding it. 



228 FARM STOCK 

FEEDING BROOD SOWS 

In feeding brood sows, three points should be 
constantly borne in mind : First, to supply the nu- 
trients necessary for the proper nourishment of the 
sow and the litter she is carrying; second, to make 
the ration bulky enough to keep the system open 
and in good condition; and third, to make it as 
cheap as possible. During the growing season such 
a ration can be supplied at a minimum expense by 
feeding about two per cent of the sow's weight of 
three parts of corn and one part bran or middlings, 
soy beans or cowpeas; the remainder of the ration 
being supplied by allowing the sow to run on clover, 
alfalfa or some other leguminous pastures. 

Clover and Alfalfa Desirable — In winter, cut 
clover or alfalfa hay mixed with grain, together 
with a sugar beet or two, or mangels, will make a 
good substitute for the pasture. The sows, as well 
as the boar, should have abundant exercise, and in 
placing the houses in the lot where the pigs are 
confined, care should be taken to have the feeding 
place as far from the sleeping quarters as condi- 
tions will allow, so as to enforce exercise in cold 
weather. 

BROOD SOWS IN WINTER 

The management of brood sows in winter has 
more influence in determining what the swine crop 
for the season will be than any other single influ- 
ence which bears upon the question. When sows 
are wintered properly from start to finish, let the 
season be what it may, the return in progeny is like- 
ly to prove satisfactory. It should not, at least, 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE 229 

prove disappointing. Sows, to produce good lit- 
ters, must have proper food and exercise, and also 
proper shelter during their period of pregnancy. 

A diet all carbonaceous or mainly so is very un- 
suitable for brood sows. Such is corn. Barley is 
not so highly carbonaceous, but it should not be fed 
alone. Such a diet does not properly sustain the 
foetus in uterus. The young pigs when born, if 
born alive, will be small. In some instances they 
will be deficient in hair. The sows are likely to 
be excessively fat if fed liberally, and may also 
have trouble in bringing forth their young. 




HOG HOUSE AND FEEDING FLOOR 

This convenient hog house is inexpensive and the feed- 
ing floor at the side insures cleanliness and thorough sani- 
tary conditions. A sanitary hog house should be one of the 
chief improvements of the farm. 

A diet all nitrogenous or mainly so is just as 
unsatisfactory. Blend the two groups and get a 
mixture. Use grasses, clovers, alfalfa and field 
roots with the grain. 

Use Home-Grown Feeds — The rations used 
should depend upon the readiness with which they 
may be grown in the locality. The list is a long 
one, and it may be made to include the following: 
Ground corn, barley or rye and wheat bran, fed in 
equal proportions by weight of one of the grains 
and two of the shorts ; equal parts ground oats and 
shorts by weight; any kind of field roots fed so 



23O FARM STOCK 

freely as to furnish the bulk of the ration with 
some corn added in the ear, or, in its absence, 
a little grain of any of the kinds named above; 
potatoes, grain and skim milk; cowpeas and corn 
in the proportions of two and one parts respective- 
ly; and cassava and cowpeas in the proportions of 
three and two parts by weight. 

Well-cured clover hay, if cut early, may be freely 
fed with profit and the same is true of alfalfa. 
These go along with a diet considerably carbona- 
ceous. Sorghum, well grown, may also be used 
similarly, but along with a nitrogenous diet. The 
proper blending of the foods is greatly important 
with brood sows, so unless the diet fed is at least 
approximately correct, the young litters will be 
proportionately disappointing. 

Exercise for Brood Sows — The question of ex- 
ercise need not give any serious concern to those 
who live in climates so mild that they can pasture 
more or less during the winter. If they can be 
set to work to dig artichokes or peanuts, so much 
the better for the progeny. They will come strong 
and vigorous. But where brood sows have not the 
opportunity to dig thus for their food, and where 
the winters are of such a character that they cannot 
get to the fields to glean, it is very different. When 
the days are cold they are much inclined to lie in 
their sleeping quarters, and thus take little or no 
exercise. 

This can usually be most readily remedied by al- 
lowing them free access to a barnyard, where they 
will have opportunity to root amid the litter in 
search for stray heads or kernels of grain. Some 
strewn purposely now and then will encourage them 
to take more exercise and the more of this they can 
be made to take the better will be the results. One 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE 23 1 

objection to having been in a barnyard is that they 
may run into apartments where the doors may be 
opened, while the animals within are being cared 
for. In this way they may become a positive 
nuisance, but this matter may be regulated by al- 
lowing them access to the barnyard when other 
work, such as has been referred to, is not going on. 
The fear that they will be injured with other live 
stock need not be felt. In a few instances this 
may happen, but such instances will be rare. 

Shelter for Brood Sozvs — Whatsoever the char- 
acter of the shelter, it should possess sufficient ven- 
tilation, dryness and warmth to keep the animals 
comfortable. With these requisites it matters not, 
so far as the health of the sows is concerned, how 
these have been secured. Even in cold climates 
they may be secured in an old straw stack which 
stands on dry ground. Brood sows have thus come 
through the winter in good shape in stack bottoms 
built adjacent to the yards. But, of course, when 
the farrowing season draws near, they should have 
quarters that are more accessible, hence, when a 
number of brood sows are kept in winter, there 
should be apartments for them in which they can 
farrow separately, and be kept there with their 
young for a sufficient period. Dampness in winter 
quarters is particularly prejudicial, as it tends to 
produce lung and rheumatic troubles, both of which 
may prove disastrous even in the case of the dams, 
to say nothing of the litters. The necessity, there- 
fore, for attention to keeping the bedding dry is 
imperative. 

Keep Brood Sows Apart — While sows may lie a 
number together for a time, after they become preg- 
nant, this should not be allowed in the advanced 
stages of pregnancy. To allow it may result in 



2 3 2 FARM STOCK 

injury to the young and also to the dams. They 
should not be allowed to sleep on concrete or ce- 
ment floors in winter, unless they are overlaid with 
boards, or they may lead to rheumatic affections in 
the sows. Where they cannot have access to barn- 
yards, they must be encouraged to take exercise by 
giving them a part of their food in any open place 
where the ground is dry and bare. Such grain food 
should be thinly strewn. They will then take more 
time in which to gather it. But in really cold and 
stormy weather such exercise should not be in- 
sisted on. 

SELECTING AND CARING FOR STOCK 
BOARS 

The more important considerations in selecting 
a stock boar include lineage, general individual 
qualities, and characteristics as to form. As with 
cattle and sheep, it is essential that the boar be 
purely bred and descended from an ancestry on the 
side of the sire and dam possessed of requisite 
qualities. These qualities include constitutional 
vigor and the ability to give good returns in meat 
for the food fed. His size should be medium to 
large of the breed represented, his bone medium to 
strong and his body of a compact type and smooth, 
and covered with a good coat of strong but not 
coarse hair and possess a clean, smooth skin; and 
he should also have decided masculinity. In ad- 
dition his head should be medium to strong; the 
neck broad and deep, varying in length and depth 
with the breed. He should be evenly wide at the 
shoulders, sides and hams, and deep top and bot- 
tom lines parallel, except that the top line should be 
a little arched in some breeds. 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE 233 

Do Not Select Too Early — The selection of a 
stock boar should not be made at too early a period, 
as modifications in form take place with the gradual 
development of the animal, hence selection, when 
possible, should be deferred until after the weaning 
season. Boars from early spring litters should be 
given the preference, as they can be used to some 
extent in service the same year. The food, until 
ready for service, may consist largely of shorts or 
oats and corn meal, in the proportions of, say, two 
to one part, with green food added. More com- 
plete development can be secured when the boars are 
fed apart or in small lots after they have been se- 
lected for breeding. They should not be allowed to 
remain with the sows beyond the age of four or five 
months. 

Amount of Service — A boar should not be used 
in service until eight or nine months old. Until 
one year old he should only be used to a limited 
extent. Soon after one year old he should be used 
with much freedom in service, but, if possible, not 
more frequently than every other day. The dura- 
tion of service will depend, to some extent, upon 
the disposition of the animal, upon the extent to 
which he has been used in service, and upon his 
prepotency. Vicious animals and indifferent brood- 
ers cannot go too soon to the block, while superior 
breeding animals may be kept as long as they are 
markedly useful. It is not usual to keep boars be- 
yond the age of five years. But remember that ex- 
cessive service always leads to physical degeneracy,' 
small animals and lack of vigor in the young pigs. 

Isolation and Exercise — It should be the aim to 
keep the boar in quarters quite away from sows, 
but this may not be practicable, especially in winter. , 



234 



FARM STOCK 



It is advisable, however, to have the fence sur- 
rounding his yard close rather than open and both 
summer and winter he should be encouraged to take 
exercise. 

Summer Management — The meal portion of the 
ration may include shorts and corn meal or ground 
barley or ground peas in the proportions. of two and 
one parts respectively; wheat bran, shorts and corn 
meal or barley, equal parts ; ground oats and ground 
corn or ground barley or ground peas, in the pro- 
portions of one and two parts respectively. Green 
Ifood may be added, such as bluegrass, alfalfa, 




HOG HOUSE FOR A SINGLE INDIVIDUAL 

The corn stover set about the wooden house gives good 
protection in cold weather. 



clover, green peas, rape, sweet corn, squashes, 
pumpkins and weeds from the garden. 

Winter Management — During this season the 
boar should be given warm quarters with frequent 
changes of litter, access to yard, and where practi- 
cable, access to a barnyard, during a part of the 
day. The food may be substantially the same as in 
-the summer, as far as the meal factors are con- 
cerned, taking care to use more relatively of the 
carbonaceous foods. Green food may be and 
should be applied in the form of field roots. 

Disposing of the Aged Boar — When not wanted 
longer for service the boar should be castrated, 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE 235 

preferably in the spring of the year. He may then 
be allowed to run through the summer on pasture 
and other food. When fattened and slaughtered in 
the autumn, he may be turned into lard and sold 
as such, if so desired. 

PASTURE CHEAP FEED FOR SWINE 

It would be correct to say that in no other way 
can a pound of pork be made so cheaply as when 
it is made on pasture. As a rule, however, other 
food more concentrated should be fed while the 
swine are on pasture, to supplement the same. The 
amount of supplemental food will depend upon the 
nature of the grazing. 

The most valuable grazing is that which is legu- 
minous in character, as clover in any of its varie- 
ties, alfalfa and peanuts. Other grazing, however, 
may be very excellent that is not leguminous. 
Such is Dwarf Essex rape and some other plants. 

In the northern states the following plants may 
be used to provide grazing for swine : Winter rye, 
barley, alfalfa, clover in nearly all its varieties, 
vetches, rape and artichokes. The grains that may 
be harvested by the swine when mature include" 
rye, bald b'arley, corn and the Canada field pea. 

In the eastern states the same foods may be 
grown as in those north. The Canada pea may 
not grow so satisfactorily, but the crimson clover 
could be added to the list, also certain varieties of 
cowpeas and soy beans. The sand vetch would 
also furnish pasturage. 




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CHAPTER XXV 
The Diseases of Swine 

The hog is such a small and unimportant animal 
when considered singly that to treat him when he 
is slightly indisposed is scarcely to be thought of. 
It is when certain diseases that are contagious 
play damage to the entire herd or spread through- 
out the community that treatment is sought. With 




THEY ARE DOING THEIR OWN DIPPING 

A simple contrivance for hog disinfectants. You can make 
it yourself and your hogs will like it. 

a few possible exceptions, the hog is not afflicted in 
any great way by infectious or contagious diseases. 
Naturally the short time that he dwells on the farm 
removes some of the difficulties in this way. 

The chief cause of whatever diseases do bother 
him is filth and unsanitary conditions under which 
he is placed. The most undesirable quarters about 

237 



238 FARM STOCK 

the farm are given the hog. Who does not recall in 
his community some small pen where one or more 
hogs are quartered for weeks or months with 
scarcely ever any additional bedding and constant 
exposure to all kinds of weather? The pen soon 
becomes a mud hole, requiring the inmate to both 
eat and sleep in filth. 

Now the hog is not naturally filthy or uncleanly. 
He likes to lie in water and moist places, but he 
prefers these to be cleanly and healthy. No farm 
animal is more careful in seeking cleanly quarters 
if left to himself. 

CORRECTIVES FOR SWINE 

Under some conditions swine show a decided 
craving for such substances as charcoal, charred 
corn cobs, soft coal, wood ashes, soft sandstone, soft 
brick, bits of mortar, rotten wood and soapsuds, 
also earth. Such a craving, when markedly present, 
is evidence that the swine are not getting in the 
food all the elements that they need. In order to 
meet this need, it is recommended that some, at 
least, of these substances shall be given to them ar- 
tificially. Those most commonly recommended are 
charcoal, charred corn cobs and wood ashes. These 
are put in self-feeders and are made accessible to 
the swine. 

The following was a favorite of Theodore 
Low's, now gone to his rest : Six bushels charred 
corn cobs, three bushels charcoal, three bushels 
wood ashes, eight pounds salt and V/2 pounds cop- 
peras. The charcoal was broken and all the other 
ingredients added and mixed by shoveling them 
over. The copperas was then dissolved in hot 
water and sprinkled over the mass, which was then 



THE DISEASES OF SWINE 



239 



shoveled over again. The old man used this for- 
mula during nearly all his years of farming. 

Some authorities recommend that all swine be 
given access to some such preparation. This I 
cannot endorse in its entirety. My contention is 
that when swine are largely developed on pastures 
mixed in character, and especially when not much 
corn is fed, they will not need such correctives. 




AN ATTACK OF CHOLERA 

One of the familiar attitudes assumed when the hog 
is affected with cholera. When this far along, not many 
cases of recovery are observed. 

Where bacon is grown in food form these correct- 
ives are but little in evidence. The reason is that 
the food that produces good bacon will also main- 
tain that condition of health in which the craving 
referred to will be but little present. 



IMPORTANT DISEASES LARGELY 
INFECTIOUS 

Hog Cholera — The farmer is, therefore, con- 
cerned more with the infectious diseases which 
are also the important ones that attack the hog. 



2 4° FARM STOCK 

Chief among these is hog cholera. No disease is 
known that destroys more animals than hog 
cholera. So far the prevention and curing of the 
disease have baffled all scientific attempts, although 
at the present time a method of inoculation has 
been perfected by the United States Department of 
Agriculture. The preliminary demonstrations of 
this test have been very favorable and may lead to 
far-reaching results. In brief, this remedy is an 
inoculating fluid secured from the horse after in- 
oculation with hog-cholera germs. Of course, hogs 
that have hog cholera already in their system could 
not be expected to be helped very materially by this 
treatment. The discoverers mean to use the prepa- 
ration for healthy hogs as a means of prevention 
when once the disease breaks out in the community 
or state. 

The hog-cholera bacillus locates in the intestines, 
giving rise to this infectious as well as malignant 
disease. Among the first things noted are loss of 
appetite, high fever, a discharge from the eyes and 
a spotted discoloration of the skin. At first con- 
stipation is noted, followed very quickly by profuse 
diarrhoea, which persists until the animal is dead. 
Hogs affected with hog cholera are dull and seek 
quietness in some corner of the pen or yard. The 
mortality is very great, being from 80 to 90 per 
cent. When of any acute nature, two or three days 
are all that are required to bring death to the in- 
dividual. 

Prevention the Best Cure — In some sections 
some farmers are constantly afflicted with this dis- 
ease in their herds, while others seemingly are free 
of it. Since it is a germ disease, it is readily car- 
ried from one farm to another by dogs, birds, or on 
the shoes of people. It is quite essential, therefore, 



THE DISEASES OF SWINE 



241 



that there should be no interchange between farms 
when hog cholera is prevalent. The most careful 
sanitation is necessary also. The sleeping quarters 
should be frequently sprayed 
with disinfectants and lime 
scattered all about that the 
germ may have little or no 
chance of gaining headway 
if it were to secure lodging. 

To keep hogs healthy, 
vigorous and fast growing, 
good food of the right kind, 
nutritious and wholesome, 
will do much; it will aid in 
building up the system so as 
to withstand infection. Con- 
sequently on farms where an 
abundance of pasturage like 
alfalfa and clover are to be 
found, fewer cases of hog 
cholera will result. 

Hogs that are fed largely 
oh corn seem to be the first 
ones attacked. The lack of 
protein and mineral material 
in their food keeps the sys- 
tem in a run-down condition 
and the animal is not so able 
to resist disease. 

If the disease once breaks 
out in your herd, the first THE result of hog 
thing to do is to separate the 
sick hogs from the well 

Vino-c rriiT-A hr^i-h Vinrlc upw in & from cholera will show 
no g s > g lve Dom KmClS new u i ce rs like those pictured here 

quarters at once and make J^Jor them in the large in- 




CHOLERA 
A post-mortem of a hog dy- 



242 FARM STOCK 

their separation as complete as possible. Divide the 
well hogs into as many groups as possible, so that 
your entire herd may not be affected. Be careful 
in feeding that the same attendant does not go from 
the sick hogs to the well hogs. It is so easy to carry 
the germs from one place to the other that it is 
reasonably certain that in this way the disease will 
be transmitted. 

If the disease has broken out in your herd and 
a large part of your animals die, let those that sur- 
vive be kept for breeding purposes rather than be 
sold. You are reasonably sure that these are im- 
mune to the disease and will be more likely to 
withstand future attacks. In this way you have 
some good brood sows and service boars that you 
can reasonably well count on should another at- 
tack occur. You thus are not confronted with the 
risk of losing your entire herd. 

Swine Plague is closely allied to hog cholera and 
is usually confused with it, but the two are not one 
and the same disease. In swine plague the lungs 
are found to be in a heavy and congested condition, 
much as is the case when attacked with pneumonia. 

In hog cholera, the seat is in the intestines, but in 
swine plague the seat is in the lungs, so in the latter 
disease, some pulmonary trouble is nearly always 
the direct cause of death. The swine plague in- 
fection takes place through the air passages, while 
in hog cholera infection occurs through the water 
or food. 

Tuberculosis — This is a disease of swine just as 
it is of cattle or sheep or man. There is a larger 
percentage of tuberculosis among hogs than is gen- 
erally supposed. Its cause is by direct infection 
and by the use of milk from tuberculous cows. Of 
course, no method of treatment is advisable, even 



THE DISEASES OF SWINE 243 

if possible. The hog is worth too little money to 
receive much treatment for so important a disease 
as tuberculosis. The best way to do if tuberculosis 
has gained a foothold in your herd is to slaughter 
your animals and start over again by getting new 
stock entirely free of the disease. All feeding and 
running lots should be destroyed for both tubercu- 
losis and hog cholera and the ground plowed and 
put to some crop that the germ may be entirely 
killed and eradicated. If the fences are of a painted 
nature, see that they are covered with whitewash 
and all litter of every nature is destroyed. 




ONE OF THE PARASITES OF THE HOG 

The thorn-headed worm attached to the anterior part 
of the small intestine often causes death. Not more than 
five or six are usuallj- found in a single animal. 

Trichinosis — This disease is caused by a minute 
worm that lodges in the flesh of the animal. So 
great and troublesome is this disease that fresh pork 
is not considered safe in some parts of the world. 
Man becomes affected with this disease by eating 
raw or undercooked pork. The trichinae are killed 
either by cooking or by the usual process of salt 
pickled and cured pork products. Hogs usually get 
the disease by eating offal and rats that fre- 
quent slaughter houses. Where hogs are given 



244 FARM STOCK 

wholesome quarters out on the farm, free from 
this filth and unwholesome food, it is quite unlikely 
that they will be afflicted in this way. 

Worms — Young pigs are often afflicted with 
worms. Of course, infected quarters are back of 
the trouble. When kept on land or lots annually 
plowed and cultivated and for the most part kept 
on pastures, worms do not often trouble hogs. 
Worms may be expelled from infected hogs by giv- 
ing turpentine in doses of one teaspoonful in milk. 
Repeat this dose daily for three or four days. 

Mange — A parasitic mite is the cause of this com- 
mon disease. This little fellow appears first near 
the eyes and ears and on the inside of the fore- 
legs. Later on it spreads over the entire body. 
Scabs are formed by this mite and are white and 
dry in nature. The hair falls off in patches. In- 
fected animals should be isolated and the skin 
washed with soft soap, after which apply a mix- 
ture containing one pound of white arsenic and 12 
pounds of alum in 25 gallons of water. This will 
be sufficient, but the pig pens or other quarters 
should be sprayed and disinfected. 

Lice — The lice have been known to produce death 
in hogs by worrying the life out of them and bring- 
ing them into a very unthrifty condition. Lice bite 
the skin and suck blood and thus produce much irri- 
tation. They come from filthy quarters. A good 
remedy is to pour kerosene over the back and 
shoulders. Fitting up a rubbing post smeared with 
kerosene is a good way. The hogs soon find this 
post, work up to it and do the rubbing themselves. 



Index 



Page 

Aberdeen Angus 91 

Ayrshire . . 102 

Baby beef 130 

Balanced ration 21 

Beef cattle in autumn 135 

Beef making 125 

Belgium draft 39 

Berkshire 203 

Boars, selecting and caring for. . 232 

Breeds of swine 203 

Brown Swiss 98 

Burro . . 80 

Calves, amount of milk for. ... 149 

Care after weaning 150 

Rearing on skim-milk 145 

Carbohydrates defined 16 

Cattle 83 

Breeds of 86 

Care and management of . . . . 144 

Diseases of 154 

Fed inferior corn 137 

Learn to judge 127 

Some common diseases of... 154 

Supplying plenty of water. . . 151 

What grain to give 151 

Wintering young 150 

Cheese making at home 118 

Cheshire 211 

Chester White 207 

Cheviot 175 

Cleveland Bav 33 

Clydesdale 36 

Colt, breaking of 61 

Cow feeding 122 

Dairy calf, feeding of 146 

Dairy cows, feeding of 112 

Protecting from flies 116 

Dairy farming 110 

Delaine Merino 166 

Devon 96 

Diseases of horses 66 

Recognizing and distinguish- 
ing 66 

Dorset 173 

Draft horse, conformation of . . . 47 

Draft type 35 

Duroc-Jersey 205 

Dutch Belted 107 

Ewes, best feeds for 188 

Breeding in winter 188 

Feeding pregnant 190 

Food for 185 

Necessary exercise for 18 7 

Plenty of water for 190 

Succulent food for 191 

Suitable shelter for 186 

Farm horse, winter care of . . . . 62 

Farm stock, The breeding of.. . . 6 

How selection is worked in . . . 9 

Where selection comes in ... . 9 



Page 

Fat defined in feed 17 

Feeding of animals 13 

Principles of 13 

Feeding standards 18 

Feeding stuffs, great variation. . 23 

Feeding the horse 48 

French coach horse 32 

French draft 39 

Galloway 93 

German coach horse 32 

Grade sire 12 

Grades of sheep 165 

Guernsey 100 

Hackney 32 

Hampshire 211 

Heavy horses 42 

Herds, how to start 11 

Hereford 89 

Hogs, different feeds for 217 

Feeding 213 

Holstein 105 

Horses 26 

Best treatment of 75 

Breeding of 41 

Breeds of 28 

Care and management of . . . . 58 

Roughage feed for 49 

Some common diseases of . . . . 68 

Watering 55 

Jacks, kinds of 78 

Selection of 77 

Jersey 98 

Lambs, taken from mothers. ... 184 

Weaning of 183 

Leicester 175 

Lincoln 176 

Live stock, when it pays 11 

Mare and foal 64 

Market milk 114 

Handling the herd 114 

Merino . . . J :•.••• l 6 ^ 

Milk, feeding in good condition , 147 

Keeping up flow of 118 

Separator milk best 148 

Morgan horse 31 

Mules 76 

Nutritive ratio 18 

Ohio Chester White 208 

Oxford 173 

Percheron 37 

Pigs 216 

Cooked and uncooked foods. . 

for 216 

Feeding skim-milk to 227 

Pasture for 215 

Weaning of 222 

Weaning to fattening 223 

Whole and ground grains for . . 217 

Poland-China 203 

Polled Durham 97 



245 



246 



INDEX 



Rambouillet 

Rams in summer 

Ration, making the 

Red polled 

Saddle gaits 

Saddle horse 

Scrubs, get rid of 

Sheep 

Care and management of. . 



Page 

167 

192 

23 

96 

31 

31 

11 

163 

181 



Choosing feeds for 180 

Diseases of 195 

Feed sufficient grains 179 

Feeding 177 

Lambing season 185 

Roots always fine for 178 

Shear early 193 

Shire horse 36 

Shorthorns 86 

Shropshire 171 

Southdowns 169 

Sow and pigs, care of 225 



i 



Page 

Sows, brood, in winter 227 

Feeding brood . . : 227 

Stallions, management of 60 

Steers, fattening in summer. . . 133 

Finishing in spring 132 

Suffolk 172,215 

Swine 201 

Care and management of. . .. 220 

Correctives for 238 

Diseases largely infectious. . . 239 

Feeding after cattle 137 

Filling orders by mail for. . . . 202 

Pasture feed cheap for 235 

Tamworth . 210 

Teams preparing for work 65 

Thoroughbred 28 

Influence of 34 

Trotter 30 

Tuberculosis in cattle 154 

Water in feed 15 

Yorkshire 209 

Large improved 209 



